THE CONTINENTS 

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THEIR PEOPLE 



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SOUTH AMERICA 

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THE CONTINENTS AND THEIR PEOPLE 
SOUTH AMERICA 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON - CHICAGO ■ DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

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THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

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THE CONTINENTS AND THEIR PEOPLE 

SOUTH AMERICA 

A SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY 

BY 
JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN, E.D.B., S.B. 

DEPARTMENT OP GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LOS 

ANGELES, CALIFORNIA; AUTHOR OF HOME AND WORLD 

SERIES OF GEOGRAPHICAL READERS 

AND 

ARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN, B.S., A.M. 

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, THROOP POLYTECHNIC 
INSTITUTE, PASADENA, CALIFORNIA 
AUTHOR OF "STANDARDS IN EDUCATION," ETC. 
. EDITOR SIERRA EDUCATIONAL NEWS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1913 

All rights reserved 



G^- 



Copyright, 1913, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1913. 




J. S. Cashing Co. — Berwick & Smith Coo 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



^, 



©Ci,A361211 



PREFACE 

No part of the world is attracting more attention 
than is our sister continent — South America. Along 
all lines there are evidences of great progress. The 
Transandine Railroad now unites the Pacific and the 
Atlantic coasts. Vast sums of money have been used 
in improving harbor facilities. Sanitary science has 
made the tropical ports safe places for the white 
man. Social conditions have been greatly bettered, 
and educational systems are rapidly undergoing re- 
organization. The wonderful scenery and the inter- 
esting evidences of a vanished civilization found on 
the Andean plateaus are each year drawing to South 
America a large number of visitors. 

Commercially South America is a field of rapidly 
increasing importance. A very large part of the 
world's supply of coffee conies from the state of Sao 
Paulo in Brazil. The forests of the Amazon furnish 
vast supplies of rubber. Argentine Republic figures 



vi PREFACE 

prominently in supplying the world with bread and 
meat. From Chile the countries of western Europe 
and the United States draw supplies of nitrate of 
soda to be used in keeping up the fertility of then- 
soils. Peru has for centuries been a storehouse of 
silver. The cocoa industry is very important in Ecua- 
dor. This is only a partial enumeration of the raw 
products which South America produces in abundance. 

Much of the land, on the temperate plains of the 
continent even, is unused and invites settlement. In 
response to this, large numbers of people from Italy, 
Portugal, Spain and France are pouring in and mak- 
ing homes. There is a demand for rolling-stock, 
railroad-rails, agricultural machinery and tools, wind- 
mills, wire for fences, and many other lines of manu- 
factured articles. The opening of the Panama Canal 
will promote the development of the whole western 
slope. 

In the city of Washington, District of Columbia, 
there stands a beautiful building of white marble. 
This is the home of the Pan American Union, an 
organization that represents twenty-one American re- 
publics and has for its purpose the furthering of their 
mutual knowledge, interest and helpfulness. Under 
the leadership of Director General John Barrett, the 
great work of bringing these countries into more 
sympathetic relations is going steadily forward. 



PREFACE vil 

As one means of realizing its purpose, the Pan 
American Union publishes an illustrated monthly 
magazine descriptive of all the Central and South 
American countries, and it issues numerous reports 
showing their progress and development. It is, in 
short, a great international bureau of information, 
where everybody can have questions answered in 
regard to the countries lying south of the United 
States as well as about the United States itself, and 
it will always welcome inquiries from the school 
children of the United States. 

As in previous volumes of The Continents and 
Their People series, an attempt has been made here 
to present the physical and human phases of geog- 
raphy in such a way as to cause them to appeal to 
the interests of children and to lead pupils to see the 
more obvious relationships between the two. 

For a careful reading of the entire manuscript and 
for many helpful criticisms, the authors tender their 
thanks to Dr. Fred Allison Howe, Head of the De- 
partment of English of the Los Angeles State Normal 
School. For the use of photographs the authors de- 
sire to express their indebtedness to the Pan American 
Union, to " South America," the Lamport and Holt 
Line, Rafael del Castillo and Company, New York, 
Professor R. De C. Ward of Harvard University, Pro- 
fessors Hiram Bingham, Isaiah Bowman and Harry 



viii ' PREFACE 

Foote of Yale Unhersity, Professor William G. Reed, 
of the University of California, Mrs. William Moran 
of Pasadena, California, and Mr. Chester W. Brown 
and Rev. Yernon W. McCombs of Los Angeles, 
California. 

Pasadena, California. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The South American Continent .... 1 

II. Venezuela 14 

III. The Guianas . . . . . . . . 30 

IV. The United States of Brazil 34 

_V._jrHE World's Greatest River 49 

VI. The Coffee Industry in Brazil . . . . 59 

VII. Argentine Republic 67 

VIII. The Metropolis of the Southern Hemisphere . 77 

IX. Paraguay . . . 88 

X. Uruguay . . . 101 

XL Chile Ill 

Xir. Bolivia 128 

XTII. Peru „ . 138 

XIV. Ecuador , . 151 

_, XV. The Cocoa Industry in Ecuador .... 158 

XVI. The Turtle Islands ....... 165 

XVIL Colombia ......... 169 




Fig. 1. 



SOUTH AMERICA 

CHAPTER I 

THE SOUTH AMERICAN CONTINENT 

Close to the place where the many mouths of the 
Orinoco River pour their muddy waters into the sea, 
Hes one of the most interesting islands in the world; 
an island upon which there is a lake of pitch. For 
ages petroleum has been coming to the surface of the 
earth where this lake is situated. On exposure to the 
air the petroleum hardens into a substance called pitch. 
This black and unattractive material is very useful, 
for it enters into the construction of the asphalt pave- 
ments so common in the cities of the United States 
and Europe. 

If you were to visit Port of Spain, the largest city 
and the chief port of the island, you would see ships 
loaded with pitch ready to sail to the United States or 
Europe. At the lake you would find many men digging 
the pitch by means of picks. Probably you are won- 
dering why the term lake is applied to this deposit. 
Near the borders people can walk upon it, and tram 



SOUTH AMERICA 




THE SOUTH AMERICAN CONTINENT 6 

cars are run back and forth upon a roadbed made of 
logs and poles. In the middle of the lake the pitch is 
so soft that it bubbles. The depressions formed by dig- 
ging the pitch are very quickly filled, as the material 
moves in by a sort of flowing motion, from the sides 
and from below. 

The lake apparently occupies the crater of an extinct 
volcano. In one place a stream of pitch about fifteen 
feet in width slowly fiows from a notch in the rim of the 
crater. In the lake are a few small wooded islands. 

Six years after Columbus discovered North America, 
he was in command of a fleet sailing northwestward not 
far from the coast of Venezuela. Suddenly the lookout 
announced that land was in sight. On the horizon 
three mountain peaks appeared to rise from the sea. 
The discoverers soon found that this land was an 
island. They gave it the name of Trinidad, some say 
because the first view of it showed the three mountain 
tops. 

This island discovered by Columbus so long ago is 
the island upon which is located the lake of pitch. 
This event probably marks the discovery of South 
America, although Columbus died ignorant of the real 
importance of his work. Other explorers quickly 
followed, and many settlements were made on both 
the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts of South America. 
The first of these was Cumana, in what is now Ven- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN CONTINENT 5 

ezuela; founded in the year 1521. This is the oldest 
permanent European settlement in the New World. 
What is the oldest European settlement in North 
America ? 

While but a small part of North America lies in the 
torrid zone, a large part of South America is so sit- 
uated. Point Gallinas in Venezuela is about eight 
degrees north of the equator, while Cape Horn is prac- 
tically fifty-five degrees south of the equator. North 
America is widest in the temperate zone, but South 
America has its greatest width in the torrid zone. 
Using the scale, find the greatest length of South 
America along the meridian, and the east to west 
dimension on the fifth parallel of latitude south. 

You will observe that practically all of South America 
lies east of the eightieth meridian of west longitude. 
Trace this meridian northward and you will see that 
it just touches the southwestern coast of Florida, passes 
within a few miles of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and 
crosses the eastern part of Hudson Bay. Because of 
the position of our southern neighbor, it might as 
truly be called East America as South America. Each 
day the sun rises in Rio Janeiro more than two hours 
before it rises in Pittsburgh. Can you explain this ? 

The Isthmus of Panama connects the two Americas. 
It was from this isthmus that Balboa discovered the 
Pacific Ocean in 1513. Where this isthmus is the nar- 



6 , SOUTH AMERICA 

rowest, the Panama Canal was completed in 1913. 
The channel of the canal is broad and deep and big 
enough to accommodate the largest ocean vessels. The 
water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific through 
this canal is thousands of miles shorter than the old 
route around Cape Horn. Coast trade between the 
eastern and the western ports of the American conti- 
nents and even ocean trade between Europe and Asia 
can now be carried on more quickly and easily than 
before the canal was built. 

The coast line of South America is more regular than 
that of our continent, or of Europe. It has no great 
projections such as Alaska, Labrador and Florida, 
and no great indentations such as Hudson Bay and 
the Gulf of Mexico. The central part of the western 
coast of South America is remarkably regular. This 
is due to the fact that the land in that section is rising. 
The lack of good harbors is a great disadvantage to 
commerce. In some cases ships must load and unload 
their cargoes some distance from shore. This is done 
by means of flat-bottomed boats called lighters. The 
southwestern coast is very irregular, being much like 
that of Norway or southern Alaska. This irregularity 
is due to a sinking of the land and to glacial action. 

The area of South America is about 7,000,000 square 
miles. It is very much larger than Europe, and nearly 
twice as large as Australia, but it is much smaller than 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN CONTINENT 



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Fig. 4. — Relief map of South America. 



8 SOUTH AMERICA 

any of the other continents. Find the area of Asia 
and Africa. 

As in North America^ we find a mountain system 
in the east, plains in the interior, and mountains 
parallel to the western coast. The Serra do Espinhaco 
is the name of the chief range in the eastern system. 
Although one of them is nearly 10,000 feet in altitude, 
none of the peaks rise above the snow line. 

The Andes are among the loftiest mountains in the 
world. Even in the torrid zone many of their peaks 
are permanently snow-covered. Bolivia has several 
mountains more than 20,000 feet in altitude, while 
Aconcagua, in Argentina, is nearly 24,000 feet high. 
In a geological sense the Andes are young, and there are 
in the system many volcanic mountains, while earth- 
quakes are of frequent occurrence. In the southern 
part of Chile, owing to abundant precipitation, there 
are many glaciers and much timber. 

The Andes, like the Rocky Mountains, form a 
serious obstacle to the construction of railroads. Only 
one railroad connects the Atlantic and the Pacific 
coasts. This extends from Valparaiso on the west 
to Buenos Aires on the east. Lofty plateaus in the 
temperate zone are too cold to favor settlement, but 
those of tropical South America are thickly populated. 
It was upon these plateaus that the most highly 
civilized of the ancient inhabitants lived. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN CONTINENT 9 

Three great rivers drain the Atlantic slope of South 
America — the Orinoco, the Amazon and the La 
Plata. These rivers are navigable for long distances 
and are important commercially. This is particularly 
true of the Amazon. Some of the commerce between 
the western coast of South America and our eastern 
coast and Europe, is carried on by way of the Amazon 
and its tributaries. There are few towns along the 
mighty Amazon because much of its basin is a dense 
forest. 

As so much of South America is situated in the torrid 
zone, cotton, rice, sugar, coffee, cocoa, bananas, oranges 
and rubber are important products. While it is always 
summer on the lowlands in the tropical portions of the 
continent, perpetual winter reigns upon the most 
lofty mountains. In ascending from the plains of the 
Amazon to the top of Chimborazo or Cotopaxi one 
would pass through all of the zones, and see the forms 
of life that belong to each. 

The southern part of South America is as far from 
the equator as is central Labrador, and it therefore has 
cold winters. While for us July is a midsummer month, 
it is a midwinter month in all of South America south 
of the equator. This does not mean cold weather, 
however, except upon the mountains and in the south- 
ern part. 

North of the equator the northeast trade winds 



10 



SOUTH AMEBIC A 



prevail, while the southeast trades prevail in that part 
of the continent between the thirtieth parallel south 
and the equator. These winds, having blown over the 
ocean, are full of moisture. As they come in contact 
with the Gkiiana Highlands, the Brazilian Highlands 

and the Andes, 
they are chilled 
and rain falls 
in abundance. 
The dense for- 
ests of the 
Amazon basin 
are due to the 
heavy rainfall 
and the high 
temperature. 
The trades have 
the effect of 
making the 
summers cooler than they otherwise would be. 

In the neighborhood of the equator the northeast 
and the southeast trade winds meet. In this belt, 
known as the Doldrums, the air, owing to the low 
pressure, is constantly rising. When the rising air 
reaches a great height, it is cooled to such an extent 
that rain falls. This occurs practically every day, and 
therefore this belt is often called the belt of daily rains. 




Fig. 5. 



Map showing distribution of 
rainfall. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN CONTINENT 11 

During the summer season for the northern hemisphere 
this belt moves northward, and during the winter sea- 
son it moves southward. This shifting of the Dol- 
drums brings the rainy and dry seasons to certain parts 
of equatorial South America. 

That part of the western coast which is situated in 
the trade wind belt and outside of the Doldrums is very 
dry because the rain is deposited on the east side of the 
Andes. Here is situated the long and narrow Atacama 
Desert. Farther south where the westerly winds 
prevail the west coast is abundantly watered; and has 
dense forests. 

South America is very rich in minerals, especially 
in the western part. Here gold and silver have been 
mined for many centuries. When the Spanish landed 
they found much gold and silver in the possession of the 
natives. This was largely in the form of plate and 
ornaments used in the temples and in the palaces of 
the Incas. 

There are to-day vast deposits of gold, silver, copper, 
mercury, iron, tin and petroleum. In Brazil diamonds 
are mined, while Colombia leads the world in the 
production of emeralds, and Chile has vast wealth in 
the form of nitrate of soda, used as a fertilizer. 

Industry and commerce are not as highly developed 
in South America as they are in North America and 
Europe, Lack of development is due to several causes. 



12 SOUTH AMERICA 

In some sections tropical climate is a hindrance. The 
dense forests along the Amazon make it difficult for 
man to obtain a foothold. As already pointed out, 
the lofty Andes make it exceedingly expensive to 
connect the east and the west by rail. For a long time 
there has been much political disturbance in South 
America, and this is another obstacle to rapid progress. 

For about three centuries the people of South America 
were governed by Spain and Portugal, but they 
finally rebelled and established republics. The conti- 
nent is now made up of ten republics and three colonies. 
There are a large number of Indians and they are of 
comparatively little direct aid in the development of 
the continent. 

South America is undergoing a great transformation, 
however. People from some of the crowded countries 
of Europe, especially Italy and Portugal, are pouring 
into the continent and settling on the rich agricultural 
lands. This is especially true in Argentine Republic 
where there are vast prairies like those in the United 
States and Canada. Here wheat, corn, flax and other 
crops are grown, and great herds of horses, cattle and 
sheep roam. Both settlers and capital are being 
attracted to Brazil on account of the coffee industry. 

The exports of South America are chiefly raw prod- 
ucts. Minerals, meat, hides, wool, grain, rubber, 
coffee and cocoa are important. The imports are for 



THE SOUTH AMEBIC AN CONTINENT 13 

the most part manufactured goods. Although we 
export to South America farming implements, cars, 
engines, carriages, sewing machines, t)^ewriters, cotton 
goods and many other things, our commerce with 
South America is much smaller than is that of Great 
Britain or Germany. Both of these countries outrank 
us in the number of ships engaged in commerce, and 
they make more effort to secure trade than do we. 

Each year the number of tourists who visit South 
America increases. Her wonderful scenery, her climate, 
her wealth of tropical plants, the remnants of her 
ancient civilizations and her beautiful modern cities 
are attracting many people. Thus our sister conti- 
nent is rapidly coming to occupy a very important 
place in industry, commerce and travel. 



CHAPTER II 

VENEZUELA 

, If you were to visit the shores of Lake Maracaibo^ 
you would find many Indians hving in huts built 
upon poles or stakes driven into the marshy ground 
that borders this large body of water. For hundreds 
of years the Indians have lived in this fashion; for 
as early as 1499, Ojeda, a Spaniard who had previously 
sailed with Columbus, entered the lake, and finding 
a village built in this manner, he called it Venezuela, 
meaning Little Venice, because it reminded him of 
Venice, Italy. The name then given to an Indian 
village came to be applied to the whole country. 

One of the villages that we can visit to-day is Santa 
Rosa. It is but a short distance from the city of 
Maracaibo, and is one mile from the shore of the lake. 
The walls of the houses are of woven rushes and grasses, 
and the roofs are thatched. Tied to the poles upon 
which the houses are built we see canoes, for these 
furnish the only means of communication with the 
land. 

The largest of these settlements is a town of consid- 
erable size, having a population of about 3000. Its 

14 



VENEZUELA 



15 




16 SOUTH AMERICA 

houses are built in rows much as they would be if on 
the land. The inhabitants make their calls and 
transact their business in canoes instead of in cars and 
cabs. This town is about three miles from the shore. 

While life in these dwellings so far from the shore 
has its disadvantages in many ways, it has some ad- 
vantages. These people depend to some considerable 
extent upon the fishing industry, and this they can 
easily carry on. In the past, their position afforded 
them much protection against their enemies. In a 
warm and moist climate mosquitoes are sometimes a 
serious pest. They are much more numerous along 
the shore of a lake or a marsh then they are on the 
water some distance from the land. 

Venezuela as a country is very little like the islands 
upon which Venice is situated. It has lofty mountains, 
extensive plains and dense forests. It is more than 
ten times as large as New York State, but has fewer 
inhabitants. It is the only republic in South America 
situated wholly north of the equator. It has an exten- 
sive coast line, and its many fine bays are a great 
advantage to commerce. 

From Lake Maracaibo almost to the mouth of the 
Orinoco a tangle of mountains parallels the coast. 
These ranges are an extension of the Andean system. 
Although in the torrid zone, some of their peaks rise 
above the snow line, which is here about 13,500 feet 



VENEZUELA 



17 



above the sea. South of these mountains is a vast 
prairie region called the llanos. Millions of cattle 
feed upon these grassy plains. Beyond the llanos are 
extensive forests, some of which have not yet been 
fully explored. In the southeast is another moun- 
tainous region separating Venezuela from Brazil. 




Fig. 7. — View on the Orinoco River, Venezuela. 

None of these mountains is permanently snow- 
covered; although some of the peaks are 8000 feet in 
altitude. 

The Orinoco is one of the great rivers of the world. 
It is fed by countless streams^ many of which have their 
sources in the Andes or in the mountains in the south- 
eastern part. These tributaries bring to the Orinoco 



18 SOUTH AMERICA 

an immense load of ground-up rock; most of which is 
deposited close to the mouth of the great stream. 
ThuS; as the highlands wear down, the great delta 
of the Orinoco is constantly being extended seaward. 
Name other rivers that are building deltas. 

For hundreds of miles from the sea the Orinoco is 
deep enough to float the largest ships. Because of 
this, the river is of great value commercially; although 
comparatively few steamboats are used. The chief 
city on the river is Ciudad Bolivar. This is the limit 
of navigation for the largest ships, but the river is 
navigable to a point less than 100 miles from Bogota 
in a straight line. Some of the exports and imports of 
eastern Colombia follow this route. 

A most remarkable fact about the Orinoco is that it is 
connected with the Amazon. The Cassiciuiare is the 
connecting link between the Rio Negro, a great tribu- 
tary of the Amazon, and the Orinoco. A marshy 
region makes this connection possible. Indians and 
explorers sometimes travel in boats from one of these 
great river systems to the other, but this cannot be 
done in large ships. Sometime the Orinoco and the 
Amazon may be connected b}^ means of a canal. 

There are many lakes in Venezuela, the largest of 
which is Lake Maracaibo. This is a body of water 
about 150 miles long by 75 miles wide and having an 
area greater than that of Lake Ontario. Examine 



VENEZUELA 



19 







f 

J 



mm 



20 SOUTH AMERICA 

the map and you will see that it is really a great bay 
connected with the sea by several narrow channels. 
While the lake is deep, there are sand bars at the 
entrance to these channels. This makes it impossible 
for large ships to go in and out. On the west shore of 
the entrance to Lake Maracaibo stands the city of 
the same name, founded nearly 350 years ago. 

Being in the torrid zone the lowlands of Venezuela 
are of course hot, but the highlands, according to their 
altitude, are cool or even cold. In fact, all of the 
zones are represented. In most parts of Venezuela 
there are but two seasons, the wet and the dry. The 
rainy season is in the summer, and the dry season 
in the winter. Owing to the latitude of Venezuela, 
summer and winter do not of course mean what they 
do in our country. 

The products vary according to the climate. On the 
lowlands, where there is plenty of moisture, bananas, 
sugar, coffee, cocoa and coconuts are produced. On 
the higher lands corn, wheat, beans and other crops 
of the temperate zone flourish. In the forests south 
of the llanos, rubber, dye woods, vanilla and other 
useful products are found. 

Venezuela has considerable mineral wealth. Much 
gold exists in the southeastern part of the country. 
Copper, iron, coal and salt are also known to exist. 
The fact that iron and coal have not yet been mined 



VENEZUELA 



21 




Fhotu bi/ Mrs. William Moran. 



Fig. 9. — Water carrier, La Guaira. 



22 SOUTH AMERICA 

extensively is one reason why so little manufacturing 
is carried on. 

La Guaira^ the chief port; is a very old city, founded 
in 1558. It is situated at the base of a mountain 
which rises very abruptly to a height of more than 
8000 feet. The name of this mountain is La Silla, 
which in Spanish means the saddle. It is so named 
because of its form. The temperature at La Guaira 
is higher than it would be were it not for the heat 
reflected from the almost perpendicular mountain 
side. The space between the mountain and the sea 
is very narrow, and the city practically consists of a 
number of parts connected by a single street along 
the ocean front. 

If a tunnel some six or seven miles in length were cut 
through La Silla, it would connect La Guaira with 
Caracas, the capital and largest city of Venezuela. 
One of the most wonderful railroads in the world 
connects the two cities, but its length is about twenty- 
two miles. It zigzags along the mountain side, climb- 
ing to an altitude of 3200 feet, and then dropping more 
than 1000 feet to the capital city. 

Caracas lies in a beautiful valley surrounded by 
mountains. The valley, which is about twelve miles 
in length by four in width, is watered by the river 
Guira. Round about the city are sugar and coffee 
plantations. Owing to the altitude, the temperature 



VENEZUELA 



23 




^ 




I'hnin hij Mrs. William Moran. 

Fig. 10. — Railroad and wagon road from La Guaira to Caracas, 

Venezuela. 



24 SOUTH AMERICA 

is more moderate than it otherwise would be, averaging 
about 70° F. What is the average temperature where 
you Hve ? 

In 1812 a terrible earthquake practically destroyed 
Caracas. As earthquakes are frequent, the houses are 
low. They are usually built of stone or plaster and are 
very commonly painted yellow or blue. The roofs 
are generally of red tile. Here, as elsewhere, the 
Spanish people often build their houses on three sides 
of a court called a jpatio. This is invisible from the 
street, and affords a most delightful place for family 
and other gatherings. During pleasant weather the 
meals are often served here. Palms and other orna- 
mental trees, as well as fragrant flowers, abound, and 
usually there is a fountain of sparkling water. 

As there is little need of fire for warmth, there are 
few stoves in the city, and therefore few chimneys. 
The houses are very much alike in architecture. The 
residence of the president of Venezuela is known as the 
^^ Yellow House" instead of the ^'.White House." 

Venezuela was the first of the South American 
countries to declare her independence. A document 
corresponding to our Declaration of Independence 
was signed on July 5, 1811. Not until 1831, however, 
did the people gain their independence. 

Not far west of La Guaira is Puerto Cabello. This 
city is practically at sea level, and is therefore very hot. 



VENEZUELA 



25 




26 SOUTH AMERICA 

It is connected by rail with Valencia, a city about 
fifty miles inland. Similarly, Tucacas is connected 
with Barquisimeto. This latter city receives the prod- 
ucts of the back country by means of pack animals. 

Maracaibo, one of the most important ports, is at 
the southern end of the neck of water that connects 
the Gulf of Venezuela with Lake Maracaibo. The town 
was founded in 1571, but was twice destroyed by the 
Indians. It is built in the form of a crescent of several 
miles in extent. The older houses are built in the 
Spanish style, having a court or patio. The bright- 
colored buildings, with their red tile roofs, look very 
attractive as seen through the foliage of the tropical 
vegetation. 

As already pointed out, Ciudad Bolivar, named for 
the patriot Bolivar, is a city of considerable commercial 
importance. It is situated on a bluff overlooking 
the Orinoco and is well above high water. Consid- 
erable gold is exported, and many cigars are manu- 
factured. The population is about 15,000. 

Industry and commerce in Venezuela are hindered 
by lack of railroads as well as by the character of the 
people. There is no thrifty middle class. The people 
are either rich or poor. The exports are chiefly raw 
products. The most important are cattle, hides, 
coffee, cocoa. The chief imports are manufactured 
articles. Considerable trade is carried on with the 



VENEZUELA 



27 




28 SOUTH AMERICA 

United States. This is in part due to the proximity 
of the two countries. 

There is a large Indian population in Venezuela, and 
therefore there are many people who can neither read 
nor write. In the past the people have been very 
unsettled politically, and there have been many revolu- 
tions ; but conditions have improved greatly in recent 
years. The people are characterized by their hospi- 
tality and politeness, as well as by their love of music 
and the drama. 



VENEZUELA 




Photo by Mrs. William Moran. 

Fig. 13. — Statue of Bolivar, Caracas, Venezuela. 



CHAPTER III 

THE GUIANAS 

British Guiana 

There are but three colonies on the continent of 
South America, and the largest of these belongs to 
Great Britain. British Guiana is larger than England, 
but as most of the country is a jungle, the population 
is very sparse, averaging under five to the square 
mile. The Dutch, who formerly controlled the region, 
reclaimed some of the flat land along the coast, and 
this is still the most thickly settled part. 

Inland from the low coastal plain there is a plateau of 
sandstone, and still farther to the south there are 
mountains. Where the rivers flow from the plateau 
to the softer rocks of the plain, rapids and falls have 
developed. Where in the United States are there 
falls caused in this way ? These falls obstruct naviga- 
tion. 

On the Potoro River, which is a tributary of the 
Essiquibo, is one of the most wonderful falls of the 
world, known as the Kaieteur. If these falls were in 
our country or in Europe, they would be visited by 

30 



THE GUIANAS 31 

thousands of people yearly. Very few white people 
have seen them, for they are far from towns or even 
roads. A great sheet of water drops over the rocks 
a distance of 741 feet, or about five times as far as the 
water falls at Niagara. The movement of the falls 
upstream has left a wonderful gorge. You remember' 
that below the Niagara Falls there is a gorge several 
miles long. 

The chmate is hot, and the temperature varies but 
little from one part of the year to another. On the 
lowlands near the coast the yearly rainfall averages 
100 inches or more, and on the hills and mountains 
it is heavier than this. These conditions cause a 
luxuriant growth of vegetation. Unless man prevents, 
the jungle, when cleared away, is very quickly replaced 
by nature. 

In the forests bright-colored parrots and toucans 
chatter noisily. The eagle, the white heron, the ibis, 
the egret and a host of other birds are common. The 
great snake called the anaconda may sometimes be 
seen, and alligators make their homes in the streams. 

Georgetown, the capital, is at the mouth of the 
Demerara River. The city is built upon land so low 
that a great wall about a mile in length has been con- 
structed to keep out the sea. On the seaward side 
of the wall is a strip of white sand thrown up by the 
waves, while on the other there are palm trees, shrubs 



32 SOUTH AMERICA 

and flowers. In the evening the people congregate 
upon this wall where they can enjoy the cool sea- 
breeze. 

The city, which has a population of some 60,000, 
carries on a considerable trade, and is the chief port of 
the country. Its most important export is sugar, 
but rice, gold and diamonds are exported to some extent. 

Dutch Guiana 

This colony is about three times as large as the mother 
country, although its total population is less than 
100,000. The country, which is sometimes called 
Surinam, is much like British Guiana in surface, 
climate and products. 

Owing to the abundant rainfall there are numerous 
rivers, but on account of rapids they are not navigable 
far into the interior. In spite of this they are the chief 
lines of communication, for roads are very few. The 
rivers also serve as boundaries, the Corentyne sepa- 
rating the country from British Guiana, and the 
Maroni separating it from French Guiana. 

As we travel up the river Surinam we see the sub- 
stantial houses of the Dutch farmers with their gable 
roofs and dormer windows. We see plantations where 
sugar, rice, coffee, cocoa and bananas are produced. 
About fourteen miles from the mouth of the river we 
come to Paramaribo, the capital. 



THE GUIANAS 33 

Ages ago, where Paramaribo now stands, the waters 
of the sea covered a reef of shells. These shells, mixed 
with earth, are used in paving the streets. The most 
attractive of the streets of the capital is called '^Herren- 
straat." It is a broad highway, and is lined with 
mahogany trees, which are very valuable. 

As slavery once existed in this country we see many 
colored people. They hve in huts with thatched 
roofs. Japanese, Chinese and Hindus are also nu- 
merous. 

An interesting fact regarding Dutch Guiana is that 
in 1667 the people of Holland accepted it from Great 
Britain in exchange for New York, which had previous 
to this time been in the possession of the Dutch and 
was called by them New Amsterdam. 

French Guiana 

The French colony, sometimes called Cayenne, is 
the smallest of the three, being about as large as Maine. 
Its population averages about one to the square mile, 
for like the other Guianas there is much jungle land. 
As in the other colonies, the rivers have rapids. 

Gold is the chief product of French Guiana. Sugar, 
coffee, cocoa and other tropical crops are produced to 
some extent. Some Cayenne pepper is produced, and 
this, it is said, gave the chief city its name. The 
French send many convicts to Guiana. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL 

Brazil is a land of summer, for it is in the torrid 
zone, and it has no very lofty momitains. Although 
it has been 400 years since Europeans first settled in 
the country, it still has vast stretches of gloomy forests 
uninhabited except by Indians. Practically the only 
paths through these forests are the streams, for, unless 
it is frequently cut, trails and roads are quickly taken 
possession of by the rapidly growing vegetation. 

Traveling upon one of these narrow lanes of water 
overhung by forest trees, we get a good idea of nature 
in the wet portions of the tropics. Here a great scaly- 
backed alligator, almost the color of the log upon which 
he is lying, drops into the water at our approach. 
There a troop of monkeys are swinging from one tree 
to another. Occasionally a great snake is seen, while 
parrots, toucans, humming birds and brilliant moths 
and butterflies are common. 

But not all of Brazil is a wilderness. It produces a 
large part of the world's supply of coffee and rubber, 
while sugar, cocoa, cotton, nuts, cabinet and dye 

34 



THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL 



35 



woodS; gold and diamonds are other products of 
importance. 

It is hard to reahze that Brazil is about as large as 
Europe or the United States, yet this is true. Its 




Fig. 14. 



Courtesy of Lamport and Holt Line. 

Gathering dyewood, Santos. 



area is equal to nearly one half that of the continent 
of South America. Yet the population of Brazil is 
only one fourth as great as that of the United States. 
Give a reason for this. 

Brazil extends about eight degrees north of the 
equator, and thirty-three degrees south of it. The 



36 SOUTH AMERICA 

latitude of Rio Grande do Sul,^on the southeast, 
corresponds to that of Charleston, South Carolina, 
although the cities are in different hemispheres. All 
but two of the countries of South America border on 
Brazil, and she has a great extent of coast line. This 
gives her a commercial advantage. North of Cape 
San Roque a coral reef fringes the coast. There are 
comparatively few openings in this reef, and there- 
fore the best harbors are south of Cape San Roque. 

A large part of Brazil is a wooded plain drained by 
the Amazon and its tributaries. Mountains parallel 
the southeastern coast. In the neighborhood of Rio 
Janeiro they are called the Organ Mountains, while 
farther south the}^ are known as the Serra do Mar. 
There are many other systems, but everywhere they 
form a wall of dense forests as well as of rock, and so 
hinder the building of roads into the interior. Beyond 
the mountains is an extensive plateau varying from 
1000 to 4000 feet in altitude. 

Brazil is in the belt of northeast and southeast trade 
winds. As the southeast trades come in contact with 
the mountains along the coast, their moisture is con- 
densed, and an abundance of rain falls. This occurs 
at all times of the year. West of the mountains the 
year is divided into a wet and a dry season. South 
of the equator the wet season begins in September 
which, in that part of the world, is spring. The change 



THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL 37 

of seasons is due to the north and south shifting of 
the wind belts as the earth revolves about the sun. 
On the Brazilian Highlands the annual rainfall amounts, 
in some places, to more than 100 inches per year. 

You know that when Europeans came to North 
America they settled on the Atlantic Coastal Plain, 
and for 300 years most of the people remained east of 
the mountains. In Brazil this was not the case. The 
coastal plain is very narrow, varying from five to 
thirty-five miles in width, and is not adapted to the 
staple crop of the country, coffee. Accordingly the 
great plantations, or fazendas, as they are called, are 
located on the lower slopes of the mountains, in the 
mountain valleys and on the eastern part of the plateau. 
The plantations and towns are therefore connected 
with the coast by short lines of railroad. At the 
coastal ends of these lines we find seaports. Very re- 
cently these short lines of railroad have been connected 
so that it is possible to journey by train from Rio Janeiro 
to Montevideo, a distance of about 2000 miles. 

The map shows you that a large river, the Sao 
Francisco, enters the Atlantic about halfway between 
Pernambuco and Bahia. It would seem as though 
this river would afford an easy roadway into Brazil. 
But navigation is interrupted by rapids and falls, and 
ships can ascend but a short distance. You observe 
that there is no important city on the river or at its 



38 SOUTH AMERICA 

mouthy and this indicates that it is of Httle commercial 
importance. About 150 miles from the mouth of the 
river are the very beautiful falls of Paolo Alfonso. 

There is considerable mineral wealth in Brazil, but 
mining is not at the present time an industry of great 
importance. Gold, diamonds and iron are produced 
in considerable quantities, and there are deposits of 
silver, lead, platinum, mercury, copper and coal. 
The diamonds are produced in the region near the source 
of the Sao Francisco, and it is nearly 200 years since 
diamonds were first found there. One of the most 
noted diamonds ever found there is known as the 
Southern Star. Worth a large sum of money, it was 
found by a negress who w^as washing clothes in a 
stream. 

Although one can go from Montevideo to Rio 
Janeiro by rail, a trip by steamer is more enjoyable. 
Traveling by water one escapes the heat of the land 
and also the red dust that works its way into the cars. 
Let us take a trip on one of the many steamers engaged 
in the coast trade of Brazil. The trip will be a slow 
one, for the ship will stop at many ports. In this way 
we shall learn much of the geography of the country. 

We begin our trip at Rio Grande do Sul, nearly 700 
miles south of Rio Janeiro. The city is near the en- 
trance of a large lagoon called Lake Patos. A bar of 
sand, which greatly obstructs navigation, separates 



THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL 39 

the lake from the ocean. In 1907 the government 
decided to open a channel thirty-two feet in depth 
across the bar, and an engineer from the United States 
was awarded the contract. 

In the region tributary to Rio Grande do Sul many 
cattle are raised and a large number of hides are placed 
aboard our ship. 

Porto Alegre, at the head of the lake, is a much 
larger city than is Rio Grande do Sul. Hides are 
exported in great numbers. 

At Santos, which is the port of Sao Paulo, coffee is 
king. More coffee is shipped from this little city than 
from any other city in the world. Santos is situated 
upon low, flat land and has a hot and moist climate. 
The newer streets are well paved, straight, wide and 
well lighted and the wharves are first class, for the 
importance of the coffee industry has led to harbor 
improvements. 

And now we approach the harbor of Rio de Janeiro, 
one of the most beautiful in the world. On the south 
side of the entrance rises a sharp peak to an altitude 
of about 1500 feet. Because of its form this is called 
Sugar Loaf Mountain. Beyond this we see still 
higher mountains, covered with vegetation to their 
summits, for there is plenty of rainfall here. 

The passage leading into the bay is only about one 
mile in width. The water is deep enough to admit 



40 



SOUTH AMERICA 



^^^^^mm 


:^| 




■ 


I- 
I 

1: 




^H 




1 





THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL 



41 



the largest ships, a fact of great importance to the city. 
As we steam through the channel, the bay, which is 
about fifteen miles long and from two to seven miles 
wide, opens up before us. It contains some fifty 
square miles of deep water, from which rise a large 
number of wooded islands. 

The city is situated upon a large peninsula that 
projects into the bay from the southwest. Rio Janeiro 




Courtesy of Pan American Union.. 

Fig. 16. — View of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 



has all of the improvements of a modern city. Across 
the main business district extends the Avenida Central, 
100 feet in width. Facing this street are many of the 
most substantial and beautiful buildings. Another 
noted street is Ouvidor. This is in an important 
shopping district, but it is so narrow that during 



42 



SOUTH AMERICA 



certain hours of the day no vehicles are allowed upon 
it. 

Rio Janeiro is the capital of Brazil, and it therefore 
corresponds to the city of Washington in our country. 




Cuurli .\y of Lamport and Holt Line. 

Fig. 17. — Aveixida Central, Rio de Janeiro. 



It is the largest city in the republic, having a popula- 
tion of nearly 1,000,000. The capital is situated in 
a Federal District as is Washington, and was settled 
by a company of Frenchmen in 1555. A few years 
later they were driven out by the Portuguese. 



THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL 



43 




44 



SOUTH' AMERICA 



One of the high hills- in the city is called Corcovado. 
From the summit, which can be reached by means of 
a scenic railway , a wonderful view is presented. The 
beautiful blue bay with its islands and many ships 
riding at anchor forms a picture long to be remembered. 



^^^^^^^^^^^^Hl 






■: 1 


1 : 


I alrHj , ^Mm.-\ 


lii'^hl 3i«J- """ 






^^^:;| 




ipw" 



Fig. 19. 



Courtesy of Lamport and Holt Line. 

Municipal Theater, Rio de Janeiro. 



Along the water front are the wharves and a fine 
drive. The streets radiate from the end of the penin- 
sula somewhat as do the spokes of a wheel. There 
are beautiful villas upon hillsides and in ravines, for 
the great increase in population has caused much 
expansion. 



THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL 



45 




46 



SOUTH AMERICA 



The first important port north of Rio Janeiro is 
Bahia, situated on the Bay of All Saints. Close to 
the water the land is low and flat. A bluff about 
150 feet in height leads to a terrace. Owing to the 
arrangement of the surface Bahia is divided into two 
parts as is Quebec. In the lower part of the city the 




Fig. 21. — Lower city and bay, Bahia. 



heavy business is done, while the chief residence dis- 
trict is on the terrace. The two parts of the city are 
connected by cable and elevator. Bahia is a large 
city; having a population of about 275^000. From 
it sugar, cotton, cocoa and tobacco are exported. 
In 1870 several orange trees were sent from Bahia to 
Washington, D.C. Later two of these trees were 



THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL 47 

sent to southern California. In this way the fruit 
known as the Washington navel orange was introduced 
into the state of California. 

Soon after crossing the tenth parallel of south lati- 
tude our ship enters the harbor at Pernambuco, or as 
the residents call it^ Recife. Recife means reef, and 
the city was given this name because there is a reef in 
front of the bay. As the entrance to the harbor is 
shalloW; great ocean liners are obliged to anchor about 
a mile from the city. Goods and passengers are trans- 
ferred to smaller boats. This is a great disadvantage, 
yet in spite of it Pernambuco has considerable com- 
mercial importance. The harbor is now being dredged 
to the depth of from 24 to 28 feet. It is expected that 
this work will be finished in 1914. 

Brazil is an old country. The city from which we 
have just sailed, like several others in the republic, 
was founded before the beginning of Boston or New 
York. The country is said to have been discovered 
by the Portuguese in the year 1500. An expedition 
landed near where Bahia now stands, and named the 
country "Terra de Santa Cruz.'' This means the 
''Land of the Holy Cross." The first product of the 
land to reach Europe was a dye wood. From its 
resemblance to a dyewood called brazilwood, the 
country received its present name, 

In the year 1822 the Brazilians declared themselves 



48 SOUTH AMERICA 

independent of Portugal, and three years later the 
mother country recognized their independence. In 
1889 the country became a republic, fashioning its 
government after that of our country. The president 
is elected for a term of four years, and after the expira- 
tion of this term, he cannot be immediately reelected. 
Three senators are elected from each state. How 
many United States senators are elected in each of 
our states ? . 

Negro slavery existed in Brazil until 1811, and 
consequently there are many negroes in the country. 

Brazil, though it has been settled for so long, is not 
visited by people from our country as is Europe. Give 
a reason for this. Within the last few years, however, 
much interest has been aroused in Brazil and other 
South American countries. 



CHAPTER V 

THE world's greatest RIVER 

Have you ever thought as you have looked at a 
river how many streams contribute water to it ? Each 
tributary entering the main stream has its branches, 
to these still smaller streams bring water, and so the 
subdivision goes on until we find the tiny rills that form 
the sources of most rivers. A river system is something 
like a tree, and, as you know, the terms branch and 
trunk are frequently used in speaking of rivers. In the 
case of the tree, the trunk supports the branches, 
while in the case of the river, it is the branches 
that support the trunk. 

The Amazon is the greatest river on earth. It is 
more than 3,000 miles long, and it drains an area of 
more than 2,000,000 square miles. Some of its water 
comes from snows that lie 16,000 feet above the level 
of the sea. At its mouth the river is much wider than 
Lake Michigan in its widest part, and at Tabatinga, 
on the border of Peru, it is said to be one mile in width. 
The volume of water discharged by the Amazon is 
twice as great as that discharged by the Mississippi. 

E 49 



50 



SOUTH AMERICA 




THE world's greatest RIVER 5^ 

This is in part because of heavy rainfall, for the basin 
of the Mississippi is more than half as large as that of 
the Amazon. 

The plain drained by the Amazon is very low. 
During the last 500 miles of its course the river falls 
but five feet. Two thousand miles from the mouth 
of the river the altitude is but thirty-five feet. St. 
Louis, about 1000 miles from the Gulf of Mexico by 
water, has an altitude of 500 feet, while Minneapolis, 
2000 miles from the river's mouth, is 800 feet above 
the level of the gulf. For hundreds of miles the 
Amazon does not flow as fast as a man can walk. You 
can understand, therefore, that the current of the river 
is not a serious obstacle to navigation. 

Owing to this levelness of the land the Amazon has 
changed its course many times, and consequently 
there are numerous channels parallel to the main 
stream. The Indians call these '^ canoe paths," and 
when boatmen unfamiliar with the river get into these, 
they often find it difficult to get out again. 

Although the Amazon is a mighty stream, it is not 
so subject to floods as are many of the rivers in the 
United States. This is in part because the rainy 
season does not occur in the northern and southern 
portions of the basin at the same time, and in part 
because the dense vegetation holds back the flood 
waters. During our summer the heaviest rains occur 



52 SOUTH AMERICA 

north of the equator, while south of the equator the 
rainy season begins in September. 

The Amazon River is very navigable. This is 
due to the great volume of the water and the flatness 
of the land. The main stream and its tributaries offer 
some 20,000 miles of navigable waters, a distance 
four fifths as great as the circumference of the earth 
at the equator. Small boats make use of the river to 
the foot of the Andes, and much of the trade of eastern 
Peru and Bolivia is carried on by means of several 
tributaries. 

Vessels of considerable size ascend the Amazon to 
Iquitos, Peru, about 2000 miles from the mouth. 
Great ocean liners reach Manaos, 1000 miles from the 
sea. Here their cargoes must be placed upon smaller 
vessels, and this gives to Manaos considerable impor- 
tance. This city is at the junction of the Rio Negro 
and the Amazon. As its position is similar to that of 
St. Louis, it is sometimes called the St. Louis of Brazil. 
AVhat river empties into the Mississippi near St. Louis ? 

Manaos has a population of about 50,000. It has 
good streets, trolley lines, telephones, newspapers, 
banks, hotels, an ice plant and a library. 

The largest tropical forest in the world is found in 
the Amazon basin. This makes travel and the settle- 
ment of the country difl&cult. Manaos is the only large 
city in the basin, and there are no railroads. Here 



THE world's greatest RIVER 



53 



everything is carried by water, while in the southeastern 
part nearly everything is carried by rail. In years 
to come this part of Brazil will have a much larger 
population than it now has. 

The products of the Amazon basin are many — 
cocoa, mandioco, sarsaparilla, rice, nutmegs, black 




Photo by Chester TF. Brown. 



Fig. 23. — ^ A rubber camp. 

pepper. Tonka beans, ginger, arrowroot, Brazil nuts, 
cabinet and dye woods and rubber. By far the most 
important of these is rubber. The use of this com- 
modity is steadily increasing, automobiles alone calling 
for an immense amount. 

Brazil produces more than half of the world's supply 
of rubber. The men who work in the forests are 



54 



SOUTH AMEBIC A 



:^^. 







U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industries, Bulletin 49. 

Fig. 24. — Tapping a rubber tree. 



THE WORLD S GREATEST RIVER 



35 



Indians. They live in huts which are built of light poles 
and have thatched roofs. Often they live in settlements 
or camps over which there is a superintendent, but con- 
siderable rubber is produced by individuals who carry 
it in canoes to the nearest camp, where they sell it. 




Photo by Chester W. Brown. 



Fig. 25. — Making a ham. 



Rubber is chiefly obtained from the rubber tree. 
There are several varieties of this tree, the one most 
commonly used in Brazil sometimes growing to be 
eight or ten feet in diameter at the base. The tree 
is tapped with a knife or a hatchet, and a liquid some- 
what resembling milk oozes slowly out. Just below 
the cuts are fastened cups in which the sap is collected. 



56 



SOUTH AMERICA 



Tapping the trees and collecting the sap is tedious 
work^ for often the workmen have to wade in water. 
Once a day the trees are visited and the contents of 




Fig. 26. — Crude rubber ready for shipment. 

the cups are emptied into a large gourd. This is carried 
to the camp, where the liquid is hardened while exposed 
to the smoke of palm nuts. This crude rubber is 



THE WORLD S GREATEST RIVER 



51 




58 SOUTH AMERICA 

black in color^ and in this form is often called hams. 
Rubber in this form is worth about one dollar per 
pound. 

Down many of the tributaries of the Amazon, boat 
loads of hams are floated. Much the larger part of 
the rubber is exported from Para. The inhabitants 
of this city call it Belam. It is the capital of the state 
of Para, and it is only about one and one half degrees 
south of the equator and about 100 miles from the 
coast. The map shows you that the city is not located 
on the main channel of the Amazon. Although the 
city is so close to the equator and on low ground, the 
climate is tempered by the steady trade winds. The 
city is clean and beautiful. The buildings are chiefly 
of brick made near by. The streets are lined with 
mango and palm trees. The city owes its importance 
almost entirely to the exportation of rubber. An 
old proverb says : ''Who comes to Para is glad to stay ; 
who drinks assai goes never away." 



CHAPTER VI 

THE COFFEE INDUSTRY IN BRAZIL 

In one of the states of Brazil^ Sao Paulo, more than 
one half of the world's supply of coffee is grown. The 
city of Sao Paulo, the capital of the state, is but a 
few hours' ride by rail from Rio Janeiro. It is situated 
on the slope of the Serra do Mar Mountains. The 
great coffee plantations, or Jazendas, lie to the north 
and west of the city. 

While the coffee tree grows only in the warm parts 
of the world, it does not thrive on the coastal plain of 
Brazil. An altitude of from 1800 to 2000 feet is re- 
quired, and hence the coffee fields are at some distance 
from the coast. The tree needs a rich soil, good 
drainage and, when it is young, some shade. If not 
pruned down, the coffee tree of Brazil would grow 
to a height of from fifteen to eighteen feet. As this 
would make the picking of the coffee expensive, the 
trees are not permitted to reach a height of more than 
eight or nine feet. 

The first step in establishing a coffee plantation is 
to clear off the forest. Sometimes the young plants 
are started in a nursery, and sometimes the seeds are 

59 



60 SOUTH AMERICA 

planted in the field. The trees are in rows about 
fourteen feet apart each way. In the space between 
the rows corn is sometimes grown while the trees are 
young. A full crop is not obtained until the trees 
are about six years old. The leaves of the coffee tree 
are dark green in color, and the blossoms are white 
and fragrant. 

The coffee crop is gathered in the winter, that is, 
from May to September. This is the dry season, which 
is of course very favorable to the coffee harvest. Pick- 
ing is done by hand, and men, women and children 
engage in the work. The inhabitants of the coffee 
country are, for the most part, Portuguese. 

The fruit of the coffee tree is known as coffee berries. 
These berries, when ripe, are about the color of a cherry, 
but are somewhat smaller. The outside pulpy part 
incloses the seeds, or heans, as they are generally called. 
There are two beans in a berry, and they grow with 
their flat sides together. 

Imagine yourself standing beside a coffee tree. With 
your left hand 3^ou grasp a branch, while with your 
right, you strip from it the berries, both ripe and 
unripe. Of course many leaves are pulled off at the 
same time. The berries you may place in a pail 
or basket, or drop upon a canvas which has been spread 
under the tree. Sometimes the pickers are paid by the 
day, and sometimes by the bag. 



THE COFFEE INDUSTRY IN BBAZIL 



61 




Fig. 28. — Picking coffee. 



62 



SOUTH AMERICA 



In order to remove the sticky pulp from the seeds, 
the berries may be placed in a cement tank filled with 
water, or in a small canal, where they are allowed to 
remain until the pulp has become quite soft. Being 




PJioto hy R. Dec. Ward. 

Fig. 29. — Fermentation basin for pulped coffee. 

light, the unripe berries float, as do the leaves and twigs, 
and are therefore easily moved. In some cases the 
berries are carried by the canal to a pulping machine 
which removes the softened pulp. 

The next process is the drying of the beans. This 



THE COFFEE INDUSTRY IN BRAZIL 



63 



is usually done out of doors, on areas floored with 
brick or tile. These drying floors are divided into 
sections which enable the workmen to keep the various 
sets of beans separate. During the process of drying 
the beans are carefully watched. Each evening they 
are raked up in piles so that they may not be injured 




Photo by R. De C. Wara. 

Fig. 30. — Drying coffee. 

by the dew. The more careful planters protect the 
piles by means of pieces of canvas. During the day, the 
beans are stirred with a rake from time to time so that 
they will dry evenly. Several days are required to 
complete the process of drying. : 

Surrounding each bean there are two coats or mem- 
branes. These must be removed before the coffee is 



64 SOUTH AMERICA 

ready for market. This is done in a hulling machine 
operated by oxen, horses or water power. Next, the 
hulls are separated from the beans, and the beans are 
sorted and sacked. On the larger plantations this 
work is all done by machinery. A sack of coffee 
contains 132 pounds. 

If you were in the state of Sao Paulo during the 
time of the coffee harvest, you would see on every 





-V^fa^ i'% ^.iK^^UmiM^OSMmmammmmiimmmimMimmmmix 


12 


^^^I^SKbKbB^^^Ssb^BS^s 





Photo by R. Df C. Ward. 

Fig. 31. — Drying grounds. 

wagon road loads of coffee drawn by oxen or horses. 
A cloud of fine red dust is raised by each wagon, for 
the best coffee soil is red in color, which is in part due 
to the iron that it contains. 

The coffee is hauled by wagon to the nearest point 
on the railroad. The great development of the coffee 
industry, and the difficulty in keeping up wagon roads, 



THE COFFEE INDUSTRY IN BRAZIL 



Q^ 




® 

5a 
o 

o 
d 

O 



QQ ; SOUTH AMEBIC A 

owing ~t6 'the very rapid growth of vegetation and the 
sparse population, have made railroads a necessity. 
Santos is the port of the region, and it is now more 
important than Rio Janeiro as a coffee exporting 
center. 

The coffee industry has led to great improvements 
in the harbor at Santos. Its wharves are busy places. 
One sees large numbers of workmen carrying the sacks 
of coffee aboard the ships which take it to many parts 
of the world. In a good year 8,000,000 to 10,000,000 
sacks of coffee are exported from Santos alone. About 
how many pounds would this be? If each tree pro- 
duced two pounds, how many trees would be required 
to produce this amount ? 

The coffee industry furnishes a good illustration 
of the countless ways in which the people of our country 
depend upon those in other parts of the world. We 
cannot grow coffee in the United States, and we there- 
fore depend upon the people in far-away Brazil, Mexico, 
Central America and some other tropical countries 
for this commodity. They in turn purchase from us 
various kinds of manufactured articles. 



CHAPTER VII 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 

Argentina is quite different from Brazil, for it is 
largely a prairie plain. It is much like our own western 
plains, and it is a great agricultural country. Enor- 
mous quantities of wheat and corn are grown on 
immense farms called estancias. Occasionally crops 
are badly damaged by swarms of locusts that devour 
practically all of the vegetation. These insects are 
such a pest that the government has appointed inspec- 
tors whose duty it is to see that they are destro3^ed. 
The northern part of the country is within the 
tropics, but the southern part of Argentina is as far 
from the equator as is the southern part of Sweden. 
There are, therefore, great differences between the 
chmate of the northern and that of the southern parts. 
As Argentine Republic is not a great mineral-producing 
land, it was neglected in the early days, and it was not 
until its great possibilities as an agricultural country 
became known that it began to advance rapidly. 

The area of Argentina is a little more than one third 
that of the United States, but it has a scant population. 

67 



68 SOUTH AMERICA 

Practically all of the people live in the cities or on the 
ranches. In our country there are almost countless 
villages; but in Argentina this is not the case. 

As has been said, a large part of the country is a 
prairie, to which the name of pampas is given. It is, 
in its natural state, a great pasture land. It is located 
in the central part of the republic, and stretches from 
the foothills of the Andes, where the altitude is about 
2200 feet, to the Atlantic. Except along the courses of 
the streams this vast area is practically treeless. The 
annual decay of vegetation has produced a fertile soil. 

Between Argentina and Chile is the great mountain 
wall formed by the Andes. Central and southern 
Argentina are in the west wind belt, and therefore the 
rainfall is not heavy. Except in the far south, these 
lands are well adapted to stock raising, and millions 
of cattle, sheep and horses are pastured here. These 
animals are looked after by cowboys, called guanchos, 
whose life is similar to that of the cowboys in the United 
States. They wear sombreros, bright-colored ponchos, 
wide trousers and tight boots. The poncho is practi- 
cally a blanket, and is very commonly worn in the form 
of a robelike garment. 

The better watered part of the plain, that is, the 
north-central part, is the great agricultural section of 
Argentine Republic. Here corn, wheat, rye, flax and 
alfalfa are grown in immense quantities. The greatest 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 



69 




70 



SOUTH AMEBIC A 



acreage is in wheats and Argentina is one of the first 
countries of the world in the production of both wheat 
and corn. As the population is so sparse, a very 
large part of the total crop is exported. AlDout three 




Courtesy of Pan AmtrUan Union. 

Fig. 34. — Fifty harvesting machines, Argentina. 

fourths of the annual yield of wheat is sent to European 
countries. 

In this new country the ranches are vast in extent. 
It is quite common to find ranches containing from 
1000 to 6000 acres each. If a ranch consisting of 
5760 acres were square, it would measure three miles 
on each side. Some of the farm machinery used on 
these ranches is manufactured in Chicago. 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 



71 




72 SOUTH AMERICA 

The map will show you that the tropic of Capricorn 
passes across the northern part of Argentine Republic. 
Here the temperature is high and the rainfall is abun- 
dant. As a result we find tropical forests. Where 
the land is cultivated, sugar, cotton and oranges are 
produced. 

In the extreme southern part of Argentina it is very 
cold in winter, for this part of the country is as far from 
the equator as is Winnipeg, Canada. Here neither 
agriculture nor stock raising is important. The 
region is often called Patagonia, but there is no political 
division having this name. 

It is generally said that the La Plata is the great 
river of Argentine Repubhc. This really is not a 
river at all, but is an estuary into which flow the 
Parana, the Uruguay and some smaller streams. In 
its widest part this estuary is more than 100 miles 
across, but it rapidly narrows as it penetrates the land. 
A territory about four times as large as Germany 
drains into this body of water. 

The Parana is of great value to Argentina. It has 
twelve feet of water to Corrientes, which is practically 
at the point where the Paraguay enters it. It is 
navigable for some distance east of this, and it therefore 
is of commercial value to Paraguay as well as to Argen- 
tina. Vessels of considerable size ascend the Paraguay 
River to Asuncion. The Uruguay also is navigable. 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 73 

and as for some distance it forms the eastern boundary 
of Argentina, it has a commercial value to this country. 
Some of the animals of Argentine Republic are 
famihar to us and some are not. Among the familiar 
ones are the deer, the fox, the raccoon, the opossum, 
the wildcat and the prairie dog. Those that are not 
found wild in the United States are the monkey, the 
ant-eater, the tapir and many smaller animals. 

Although there is considerable mineral wealth in 
Argentina, mining has not been extensively developed. 
There is some gold, silver, copper, lead and salt. 
Neither coal nor iron is as yet produced in large quan- 
tities. If these resources are not developed in years 
to come, Argentina is not likely to become a manu- 
facturing nation on a large scale. The great manufac- 
turing nations of the world are the ones that have and 
are developing immense deposits of coal and iron. 
Name these countries. 

As most of the country is so level and free from 
forests, there is not the difficulty in constructing and 
maintaining roads that is experienced in Brazil. The 
map shows you that the north-central part of the 
country is well supplied with railroads. This is the 
part that is the most productive. According to the 
map, what is the great railroad center ? Explain this. 

The capital and most important city of Argentina 
is Buenos Aires, situated on the south shore of the 



74 SOUTH AMERICA 

estuary of the La Plata. The geography of this great 
city is discussed in the next chapter. Considering 
her great extent of coast hne, Argentina has few ports. 
This is because so much of the most productive part 
of the country is tributary to the La Plata. 

Some forty miles from Buenos Aires is the city of 
La Plata. Here there are good docking facilities. 
Wheats corn, meat and hides are exported. The 
population is about 80,000. 

At the head of the bay of Bahia Blanca is the city 
of the same name. Here there is a deep and a well- 
protected harbor. The city is small, but is growing 
rapidly. Rosario, Parana and Santa Fe are the chief 
river ports of Argentina. Rosario is the second to 
Buenos Aires in population. 

Tucuman in the northwestern part of the country 
owes its importance to the large sugar estates in the 
region and to the mineral deposits west of it. Mendoza 
is also in a mineral-producing section. Much fruit is 
raised in the vicinity. Founded in 1535, it is an old city. 

There is now direct railroad communication between 
Valparaiso, Chile and Buenos Aires. This road is 
known as the Transandine Railroad. It crosses the 
Andes at a very great altitude, and there are many 
snowsheds to keep the track from being blocked by 
snow. At the Uspallata Pass, on the boundary between 
Argentina and Chile, is a bronze figure of the Christ, 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 



75 



erected to commemorate the treaty of peace entered 
into by these countries. On a tablet is this inscription : 

''Sooner shall these mountains crumble to dust than the 
people of Argentina and Chile break the peace to which 
they have pledged themselves at the feet of Christ the 
Redeemer." 




Fig. 36. 



Courtesy of Lam-port and Holt Lim 

■Christ of the Andes. 



76 SOUTH AMERICA 

Argentina is developing very rapidly. Its climate 
is favorable to settlement by white people. Its surface 
favors agriculture on a large scale. It is compara- 
tively easy to construct railroads. There are navigable 
rivers, and land is cheap. All of these conditions 
attract large numbers of Europeans. 

During recent years about 250,000 immigrants have 
landed in Argentina yearly. Practically all of them 
land in Buenos Aires. Where do most of the immi- 
grants who come to our country land ? The people 
who pour into Argentina come chiefly from three 
countries, — Italy, Spain and France. 

Much foreign capital is invested in Argentine Re- 
public. This comes largely from Great Britain, France 
and Germany. Argentina was settled just about 
100 years before a settlement was made at New York, 
and it became a republic in 1824. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE METROPOLIS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 

An ocean voyage of 6000 miles from the largest city 
on our continent would bring us to the metropolis 
of South America — Buenos Aires. This trip would 
require more than three weeks. Buenos Aires is not 
much farther from Liverpool than it is from New 
York. It lies almost exactly south of the eastern 
extremity of Nova Scotia. A line drawn east and west 
through Buenos Aires would reach the Cape of Good 
Hope in the southern extremity of Africa and the city 
of Sydney in Australia. Situated upon the wide mouth 
of the river Rio de la Plata^ and being the shipping 
and trading point for one of the most productive 
regions of the South American continent, Buenos 
Aires is one of the most important cities in the 
world. 

The river Plata, at its mouth, is more than 100 
miles in width. This wide estuary becomes narrower 
as it enters the land. At Buenos Aires it is 30 miles 
wide. The city is built on the south bank of the river. 
It is the capital of the Argentine Republic. Its popu- 

77 



78 SOUTH AMERICA 

lation is more than a million and a quarter, or more than 
that of Cleveland, Cincinnati and Columbus combined. 

Buenos Aires is the largest Spanish city in the world. 
It has more people than any other city in the Southern 
Hemisphere. The next largest city in South America 
is Rio de Janeiro — the largest Portuguese city in 
the world. Does it not seem strange that the largest 
Spanish city should be situated so far from Spain ? 
Compare the size of Buenos Aires with that of the 
large cities in Spain. What cities in the Southern 
Hemisphere can be compared to Buenos Aires in size 
and importance? 

Of every five people in the republic of Argentina 
one is in its capital city. Just as Washington is the 
Federal city of the United States and the City of 
Mexico the Federal city of that country, so Buenos 
Aires is the Federal city of Argentina. The city and 
territory surrounding it comprise a Federal District. 
This district, or state and city of Buenos Aires, is 
the most wealthy and populous of all the states of the 
republic. It covers 70 square miles and contains 
nearly half the population of Argentina. 

This city, which has made such a wonderful growth 
as to draw the attention of all the world, is very old. 
It was founded in the year 1535. Some years before 
this, Pedro Mendoza, a Spaniard, was commissioned 
by his king, Charles V, to visit South America. After 



METROPOLTS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 79 




80 SOUTH AMEBIC A 

giving the name Buenos Aires, which means ^^City 
of Good Airs/' to the town, Mendoza held it in the name 
of Spain. It was soon captured and burned, however, 
by the Indians. But the city soon again came into the 
possession of the Spanish. The Enghsh captured it 
in 1806 but held it only a short time. It was then 
ruled by the Spanish viceroys until May 25, 1810. 
On that date the Argentinos achieved their indepen- 
dence. Their independence was not recognized, how- 
ever, for some years. 

To-day Buenos Aires is easily reached by water from 
America or Europe. For nearly 300 years after the 
founding of the city, all trade with Spain was carried 
on by way of Panama. Spanish vessels engaged in 
commerce, and all travelers came first to Panama. 
They then traveled to Lima on the coast of Peru, and 
thence across that country to Potosi. This carried the 
travelers through the rich silver-producing area around 
Potosi. Even then it was a long and tedious journey 
to Buenos Aires, which was reached by way of the 
Salado River and thence down the Parana River. 

If you were to go by boat down the Atlantic coast to 
Buenos Aires, or should cross the continent from 
Valparaiso on the west, you would be astonished as 
you entered the city. Everywhere you would find 
hurry and bustle as in New York or Chicago or San 
Francisco. The wharves and docks are crowded with 



METROPOLIS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 81 

freight and passengers. The harbor is full of vessels, 
large and small, from many nations. Goods from all 
parts of the world are being carried to warehouses and 
wholesale stores. Upon the docks are piled boxes 
and bales of goods that are to be sent from Buenos 




Courtesy of Pan American Union. 

Fig. 38. — Docks and elevators, Buenos Aires. 

Aires to foreign countries. Trucks and heavy drays, 
stevedores and messengers are rushing back and forth. 
Everywhere you see evidences of great activity. 

At one time the harbor was shallow and only small 
boats, or lighters, could reach the docks. Large steamers 



82 SOUTH AMEBIC A 

were forced to remain far out in the stream. But 
later the waters of the harbor were dredged and deep- 
ened. Improvements of the most modern type were 
put in. These; for the most part^ belong to the city. 
Now ocean-going steamers and sailing vessels, drawing 
not more than 27 feet of water, are enabled to tie 
up at the city wharves. These improvements have 
cost many millions of dollars. 

Along the water front can be seen vessels from all 
parts of the world. Grain elevators are scattered here 
and there. Loading and unloading of heavy freight 
is done by cranes, moved by electric power. 

The city is also a great railroad terminus. These 
railways extend to the cities and towns and into the 
rich agricultural and cattle-raising regions. They have 
been built and are owned by the English. More than 
one half the total investment the English people have 
in Argentina has been put into railroads. Trains are 
constantly arriving in Buenos Aires from all parts of 
the republic carrying cattle, sheep, horses, mules, 
hides, tallow, wheat, corn, flax, oats and other products. 
These are exported to the United States, Great Britain, 
Germany, France and other European countries. 
Buenos Aires is the largest wool and hide market in 
the world. 

Some of the business streets are narrow. On a few 
of them vehicles are allowed to travel in one direction 



METROPOLIS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 83 

only. They are well paved and lighted by electricity. 
Some of the residence streets are very beautiful. The 
most magnificent boulevard is the Avenida 25 de 
Mayo. This street received its name in honor of 
Independence Day, which is the 25th day of May. 
This boulevard is one of the finest in the world. It is 
wide and bordered with sycamore trees. 

There are parks and plazas in plenty. Of the nine 
public parks, the largest is the Palermo, or Third 
of February Park. This lies along the river Plata, and 
here there are fine drives and a race course. On Sunday 
afternoons rich and poor alike delight to gather here 
and watch the carriages and automobiles as they dash 
back and forth or take part in the races. Order is 
preserved, where necessary, by mounted and armed 
Gendarmes. The people of Buenos Aires are called 
Portenos, and they are exceedingly fond of sport. 

Along the shores of the river and bordering the parks, 
are as fine residences as could be found in our large 
cities. The business blocks are modern. They are not 
built high as in our cities. In the stores and even in 
the smaller shops can be purchased the finest goods, 
sent to Buenos Aires from every market in the world. 
On the Avenida are some of the large hotels of the 
city. The theaters are attractive and well attended. 
The most magnificent opera house in the Western 
Hemisphere is located here and is said to have cost 



84 SOUTH AMERICA 

$10,000,000. Large department stores, fine restau- 
rants and imposing banking buildings are seen on every 
side. The latter are owned mostly by the English, 
Germans, French and Italians. Because of its attrac- 
tiveness Buenos Aires is sometimes called the ^^ Paris 
of South America." 

There are several important newspapers published in 
the city. There are in all nearly 400, and eight of these 
are published in English. On the Avenida de Mayo 
the newspaper La Prensa is published. It is housed 
in a beautiful five-story building. This is the finest 
structure devoted to newspaper work in the world. 
The La Prensa is one of the world's great newspapers. 
It is printed in Spanish and has been issued for forty 
years. In this building, in addition to the best equip- 
ment of modern machinery, are offices and lecture 
rooms. There is a large audience hall, a library, 
reading rooms, baths, cafes, music rooms and apart- 
ments where visitors are entertained. There is a free 
dispensary for those who are too poor to pay for medical 
treatment. Any one in need of the services of a lawyer, 
and unable to hire ohe, may here have advice free of 
charge. In the building there are mural paintings by 
Italian masters and beautiful carvings by German 
and French artists. The paper has a circulation of 
120,000. 

The same telegraphic news that you read in your 



METROPOLIS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 85 

paper to-day^ appears also in the columns of La Prensa. 
The Nacion is another important paper. Tele- 
graph and telephone are in general use throughout the 
city. Sanitation is good and there are excellent water 
and sewer systems. These systems are owned by 
the municipality and cost a great sum. Electric 
cars and taxi-cabs offer quick transportation facilities. 
There are no elevated railways^ but there is a subway. 
The government of the city is good. 

The capitol or Federal building is located on the 
Avenida Mayo and some distance back from the street. 
It is a fine building and covers an entire block. The 
dome resembles that of the Capitol building at Wash- 
ington. There are many fine effects in architecture 
throughout the city^ as the government offers each 
year a prize for the most beautiful structure erected. 

The only transcontinental railroad leading out of 
Buenos Aires is the Trans- Andean, built over the Andes 
to Valparaiso on the Pacific side of the continent. The 
distance is 888 miles. To Rio de Janeiro it is 1200 
miles by water. To Montevideo it is 100 miles. The 
banks of the river Plata are low and the waters are 
dirty and rough at Buenos Aires. Splendid passenger 
and freight boats pass back and forth from Buenos 
Aires to Montevideo. Many people live in one of 
these cities and do business in the other, so steamers 
run each way every night, arriving at their destination 



86 SOUTH AMERICA 

in the morning. Many of the well-to-do inhabitants 
go to the beaches and resorts that are located just out- 
side of Montevideo. 

The labor of the city is performed chiefly by Italians. 
Hundreds of thousands of immigrants are coming to 
Buenos Aires every year, among them many Italians. 
There are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Germans and 
English with a few Americans to be seen in the streets. 
While the English have had much of the trade, the 
Germans are fast gaining a foothold. In England 
the people speak of Buenos Aires as ''B. A.," or '^ Aires," 
and think no more of a business trip to that far-away 
city than they would of coming to our country. 
Spanish is the language usually spoken, but, owing to its 
mixture with many other languages, it is poor Spanish. 

The climate of the city is most agreeable. It is 
never very cold or very hot. It is similar to that of 
^^ Detroit in summer and Atlanta in winter." 
There is much rain, sometimes as much as five inches 
during a single storm. Prices are very high. The 
country has developed so rapidly that many people 
who were once poor are now extremely wealthy. These 
demand all the most costly things in food, in dress and 
luxuries and in manufactured articles that can be had 
anywhere. For this reason there are also many very 
poor people, and class distinctions are marked in Buenos 
Aires. 



METROPOLIS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE 87 

The educational advantages of the city are improv- 
ing. The National University of La Plata is located 
here. There are normal and business schools and 
pubhc institutions of elementary and high school 
grade. The agricultural schools are doing much to 
educate the young men in better and more improved 
methods of farming, dairying and stock raising. 

From Buenos Aires there is exported more than three 
times as much per capita as is exported from the United 
States. On the plains of Argentina there is grown such 
quantities of wheat and corn, and so many cattle are 
raised, that this country is our greatest competitor 
in this regard. From the city of ''Good Airs" frozen 
meat, as well as wheat and corn, are sent in great 
quantities to Europe, and manufactured articles 
imported from England, Germany and France. 

What you have learned about Buenos Aires shows 
you that in addition to being the metropohs of the 
Southern Hemisphere, it is one of the very important 
cities of the world. 



CHAPTER IX 

PARAGUAY 

The country of Paraguay lies far interior in the 
heart of South America. Boh via and Brazil lie to the 
north, Brazil to the east and Argentina to the south 
and west. There is only one other South American 
country that is not touched by the ocean. Do you 
know which this is ? Paraguay is located midway 
between the two oceans on the east and west. Its 
northern boundary is equally distant from the northern 
and southern extremities of the continent. It covers 
an area greater than that of the New England states 
and the British Isles combined. Its population is 
about equal to that of the city of Baltimore. 

For the most part Paraguay is a plain country with 
hilly or low mountain stretches here and there in the 
south and east. The principal mountain range ex- 
tends from north to south. The Paraguay and Parana 
are two mighty rivers that flow through and border 
the country. The principal city is Asuncion, the 
capital. 

Like many other countries of South America, Para- 



PARAGUAY 89 

guay has a history reaching back years and years. 
The country was discovered by Sebastian Cabot. 
In the years 1526 and 1527 Cabot, an Enghsh explorer^ 
sailed far up the Parana and Paraguay rivers. For 
a long time the country was governed by Spain. In 
1811 the independence of Paraguay was declared. It 
is now a republic. In Paraguay the voting age is 
18 years. The president is elected for a term of four 
years. He has five ministers or secretaries. These 
serve much the same purpose as do the cabinet members 
in our own country. 

You will see that the Parana River, which forms the 
southern boundary of Paraguaj^, rises far away in the 
mountains of Brazil. This river is more than 2000 
miles in length. Large vessels can navigate the river 
to where it becomes the boundary of Paraguay. Then 
for 600 miles smaller vessels travel back and forth 
as far as the Guayara Falls. The Paraguay River 
also rises in Brazil. This is the most important river. 
It flows through the center of the country. Large 
boats can sail up the Paraguay to Asuncion and Villa 
Concepcion, which are built upon its banks. Farther 
north, small boats carry produce and passengers. The 
Paraguay River is 1800 miles long. 

The Paraguay joins the Parana just at the south- 
western corner of Paraguay. Several other rivers 
join these as they flow south. Then the Uruguay 



90 SOUTH AMERICA 

River unites with them and they form the Rio de la 
Plata. This is one of the largest estuaries in the world. 
The other important rivers of Paraguay are the Pilco- 
mayo, Jejun and Tibicuary. These are all branches 
of the Paraguay. The Pilcomayo, before it joins 
the main river, forms the western boundary of the 
republic. Most of these rivers have low banks and 
flow through level country. 

There are two lakes of importance : Ipoa, in the 
southwest, covering an area of 100 square miles, and 
Lake Ipocaroi, next in size. Neither of these lakes 
can be used by vessels. 

Because there are few railroads in Paraguay, the 
rivers furnish the chief means of transportation. 
The Paraguay Central is the only railway through 
the interior. It extends from Asuncion to Pirapo and 
to the Parana River. However, more railroads are 
being built. 

Back from the cities and the rivers, great herds of 
cattle cover the plains as in Argentina. In the north 
and west is the valley of the Gran Chaco, or Great 
Hunting Ground. This is partly forest and partly 
grassy plain or pampas. This region is sparsely settled 
and nomadic Indians roam and hunt here. 

Paraguay has a tropical climate, but it is dry and 
healthful. Almost all the products of the tropical 
and temperate zones grow here. The cool ocean breezes 



PARAGUAY 91 

blow from the south and east during the summer 
months. This is the season of rain. The hot, dry 
winds blow from the north. 

From the cattle are produced large ciuantities of 
jerked beef, hides and tallow. Horses and sheep are 
raised in great numbers. Of the fruits grown, bananas, 
peaches, mandarins, oranges and other citrus fruits 
are among the most important. Paraguay is one of 
the few countries in the world where oranges grow wild. 
These are exported in large quantities to Buenos 
Aires. The principal orange-growing district is 
Gaguaron, 50 miles east of Asuncion. Grapes are 
cultivated and wine is made. Most of the bananas 
are shipped to Rosario and Buenos Aires, where they 
are sold in the markets. 

Tobacco is one of the chief agricultural products. 
This finds ready market in Argentina. The cotton 
grown in Paraguay is of excellent quality. The 
fiber is long and silky. Each year the amount of cotton 
produced increases and much is shipped to Europe. 
Rice is also grown. Coffee, manioc, cane sugar and 
indigo are important productions. 

The principal crop is the Mate or Paraguay tea. 
This tea is produced from the dried leaves of the 
Brazilian holly. About 18,000,000 pounds, or 9000 
tons,- of this crop are dried and treated every year. 
Fully half of this is sent out of the country. Argentina 



92 SOUTH AMERICA 

and the other South American repubhcs consume great 
quantities of this tea. The plant is found in the 
northeastern part of Paraguay where it grows wild 
over large areas. In some sections it is cultivated. 
The tree grows to a height of 12 to 25 feet. It is 
very bushy. Its leaves are light green in color and it 
bears a small; dark berry. The natives cut the 
branches and carry them in their ponchos, or blankets, 
upon their heads. 

In the dry season when the leaves are gathered they 
are dried by means of brush or wood fires. The leaves 
are then powdered by being pounded with sticks or 
flails. Sometimes they are placed in a rude crusher 
drawn by oxen hitched to a long pole or sweep. Again 
an overshot water wheel and water power are used to 
grind the leaves. This fine substance can then be 
pressed into sacks of 200 pounds each and shipped. 

The Yerba Mate is usually served in egg-shaped 
gourds. The powdered leaves are placed in a gourd 
and hot water added. The tea is sipped through a 
long tube. The tubes used by the poor people are made 
of wood of bone. In the homes of the well-to-do, 
however, they are of brass or silver. The tube, or 
stem, is called a hombilla. The lower end of the bom- 
bill a is spoon-shaped, flattened and perforated. These 
holes admit the beverage but exclude the tea leaves. 
The Mate is frequently served with sugar or lemon. 



PARAGUAY 



93 











94 SOUTH AMERICA 

Many prefer to take the tea without either, following 
the custom of the orientals. 

The gourd is passed to one member of a family or 
to a visitor. It is then replenished and passed to 
another. In this manner it may rotate several times 
amongst the guests. This custom is followed on 
entering a home, and reminds one of the Indian custom 
of smoking the pipe of peace, so common in our early 
history. 

The forests cover the mountain slopes. Here are 
found woods of much value. The curupay is hard and 
durable and used for railway ties, piles and heavy 
construction. As the bark of this tree contains tannin, 
it is exported. Another wood is the quebracho, 
valuable for ties and for tannin. There are many 
other cabinet and dye woods, including lapacho and 
cedar. There are numerous medicinal plants. The 
forests produce resins and balsams, and a native 
fiber plant called mapajo, which the Indians use in 
the manufacture of a coarse textile. This is woven 
into cloth. There is considerable rubber produced. 
Most of" this is shipped to France. 

One of the principal manufacturing occupations is 
the extract industry. An extract is obtained from the 
leaves of the native orange tree. This extract is called 
the oil of petit grain. In the orange belt east of 
Asuncion are located large distilling establishments 



PABAGUAY 95 

where the work of extracting is carried on. The 
leaves are picked and taken to these plants and the 
oil extracted. It takes from 300 to 350 pounds of 
orange leaves to produce one pound of essence. This 
extract or oil is used in the manufacture of flavoring 
extracts. It is particularly useful in the making of 
various perfumes also. Many of the perfumes you use 
contain extract of orange leaves shipped from far-away 
Paraguay. 

The country is not very rich in mineral deposits. 
There are some iron and copper mined, and mercury 
and manganese are produced. Other minerals are 
kaolin, agate and opals. 

The largest city is Asuncion, the capital. It is on 
the east bank of the Paraguay River, which at this point 
is nearly a mile wide. Asuncion was first settled by 
Spanish explorers in 1536. It is not a large city, 
having a population of about 55,000. The city is 
located where the Pilcomayo River empties into the 
Paraguay. There are many flourishing mercantile 
establishments. The trade is conducted chiefly by 
Germans, French, Italians and Spanish. 

The buildings are substantial but not imposing. 
The streets are poorly paved. In the center of the city 
is the avenue Independencia Nacional bordered by 
palms, banana and other tropical trees. The houses 
are brilliantly painted in yellow, green or white. The 



96 



SOUTH AMERICA 




PARAGUAY 97 

windows of many buildings are fitted with heavy 
iron gratings. Back of the city the ground rises in 
abrupt terraces, and a splendid view of the town and 
river is secured from this district. The city is sur- 
rounded by a rich agricultural region. 

Asuncion is a long distance from the ocean, and all 
exports to Europe or the United States must be shipped 
down the river to Buenos Aires or Montevideo. From 
Asuncion to Buenos Aires the distance is about 1000 
miles. Paraguay tea is the chief export. Other 
exports of importance are tobacco, oil of petit grain, 
hides, citrus fruits, cotton, rubber, tannin, woods and 
other forest. products. Sugar, oranges, coffee, manioca 
and rice are also sent out. Germany and Belgium 
receive most of the exported articles. Of the South 
American countries, Argentina and Uruguay offer 
the best markets. 

The most important manufacturing industry is 
tanning leather. In Asuncion, calf and kid leather 
are tanned, as well as saddle and harness leather. In 
other cities only sole leather is tanned. Cigars and 
cigarettes are manufactured in small quantities. 

The value of the imports from the United States 
is more than three times that of Paraguay's exports 
to us. Modern agricultural machinery, tools, axes, 
machetes and small manufactured hardware are 
purchased from this country. Kerosene is another 



98 SOUTH AMERICA 

import. Dressed hides and leather, ready to make 
into boots and shoes, are sent back to Paraguay. More 
is imported from Great Britain than from any other 
country, and Germany stands second. Cotton goods, 
textiles, clothing, dry goods of all kinds, hats and 
furnishings for men, groceries, canned meats and pro- 
visions, hardware, drugs and medicines are sent in 
from Europe. 

The market of Asuncion is a most interesting place to 
visit. Here you would see comparatively few men. 
Upon the ground outside, the poorer people display 
their wares. Inside on shelves and in cases the higher- 
priced articles are for sale. The river near by fur- 
nishes many fish. There are fish and meats, wild 
fruits of many varieties, vegetables and dairy products. 
The butter and cheese are very white in color. Cream 
is sold in stone jugs. Bread and maize are on the 
shelves, and a beverage, a native beer made from sugar 
cane, is offered in stone mugs. Many bouquets of 
flowers are displayed. 

If you go to market in Asuncion you must carry your 
basket or pan with you, for goods are not delivered as 
they are in our country. The women do the marketing 
as well as sell the goods. Most of them carry large 
pans upon their heads. They dress simply and seldom 
wear shoes. As they walk along the street balancing 
pans of butter, eggs, and fruits upon their heads they 



PARAGUAY 99 

are an interesting sight. The body is held erect and 
the hands are not used in balancing the load. 

In Paraguay the native men are small. They wear 
white shirts and baggy trousers with a gay sash and 
a sombrero. They are usually barefooted. These 
men are excellent horsemen and many of them go armed. 
In Paraguay, more than in other South American 
countries, the native blood is mixed with that of the 
Indian. 

Men and women, and even boys and girls, smoke 
large cigars. During the heat of the day there is very 
little activity on the streets. This is the time for the 
siesta or rest. The morning and late afternoon and 
evening are the times for work. This custom is followed 
in almost all tropical countries. 

Other cities of importance on account of their 
shipping are Villa Concepcion, on the east bank of 
the Paraguay River, north of Asuncion, and Huniaita 
on the same river, near the southern boundary of the 
country. On the Parana River, toward the south- 
east corner of Paraguay, is Villa Encarnacion. Other 
cities are Villa Rica, San Estanislao and Caazapa. 
All of these cities are small. 

In the ranch districts the poorer natives live in rough 
bamboo or mud houses. In the cities many of the roofs 
are of tile. The well-to-do natives of the cities imitate 
the Europeans in dress and other customs. 



100 SOUTH AMERICA 

The railway travel is in four classes. The engines 
and cars are of English make. In the country are 
over 400 public and private schools. There are 
two normal schools and at Asuncion there is a 
university. 



CHAPTER X 

URUGUAY 

Of all the republics of South America Uruguay is 
the smallest. It covers about the same area as does 
North Dakota. Although it is sparsely settled, it 
has a larger population per square mile than any other 
country on the continent. It contains about 1,000,000 
people, and one third of these are in Montevideo, 
the largest city and the capital of Uruguay. 

The location of Uruguay is excellent. The wide 
estuary of the Rio de la Plata and the Atlantic Ocean 
are on its southern boundaries. Brazil touches it on 
the north and east and Argentine Republic on the west. 
The Uruguay River forms the boundary between 
Uruguay and Argentina. Being situated south of 
the Tropic of Capricorn, and on the Atlantic Ocean, 
the cliniate is pleasant and healthful. The summers 
are not too hot nor the winters too cold, the seasons 
comparing favorably with our spring and autumn. 

Uruguay is for the most part an extensive rolling 
plain. Scattered here and there are hills, but there 
are no high mountains. The country is everywhere 

101 



102 SOUTH AMERICA 

well-watered and fertile. The plains are grass-covered. 
Although there are no large forests as in Brazil, there 
is an abundance of timber for all necessary uses. 
While people from many nations are to be found in 
the cities, the greater part of the population is native- 
born. 

Since the year 1828, Uruguay has had its indepen- 
dence. From the beginning of the sixteenth century 
the territory that is now Uruguay was claimed by Brazil 
on the north and Buenos Aires on the south. Brazil 
was settled by the Portuguese, and Buenos Aires was 
held by the Spanish. The natives of Uruguay or 
Charruas were freedom loving people and independent 
by nature. Finally, after being ruled by Great Britain, 
by Spain, and Portugal, Uruguay became independent. 
However, even to the present day, the surrounding 
nations have quarreled over Uruguay. Disturbances 
within the country are also frequent. 

On account of its well-watered soil and grassy plains, 
the raising of cattle and sheep is the chief industry 
of Uruguay. The Pampas, or grassy central plain 
of South America, extends across the country. Agri- 
culture is not extensively carried on. About one 
twentieth of the land is cultivated, but as time goes 
on the growing of grain receives more attention. 
Vegetables in great variety and fruits of the sub- 
tropical and temperate zones grow in abundance. 



URUGUAY 103 

Peaches of the finest quahty^ and grapes are produced. 
These ripen as early as February. The grapes are 
sold in the markets for table use^ and much wine and 
alcohol are made. Olives are now being cultivated. 

With the products of the range, Uruguay is becoming 
a competitor of Argentina and other countries; in the 
European markets. Tremendous numbers of cattle 
and sheep fatten on the rich grass of the plains. There 
are exported ^^ jerked" or dried beef, corned beef, 
ox tongues, mutton, canned and frozen meats of all 
kinds. The meat salting factories are called sala- 
deros. Hides form an important article of export. 
Tallow, horns, wool and sheepskins are sent out. 
Much of these products go to England and Germany, 
but France buys the largest quantities. There are 
in the country 8,000,000 cattle" and 25,000,000 sheep. 
The hides and skins are four times as valuable as all 
agricultural products. 

The most important article of manufacture is the 
extract of beef. The extract is made by the great 
German firm of Liebig. This company has many 
thousands of acres of pasture and many hundreds 
of thousands of cattle in Uruguay. The meat is 
placed in large tanks or kettles after the fatty portions 
have been removed. It is stewed and a soup-like 
substance obtained. All grease is skimmed off. By 
this process, four pounds of lean meat produce one 



104 



SOUTH AMERICA 




URUGUAY 105 

pound of extract. The liquid passes through one 
process after another until when cooled it becomes 
a jelly-like substance. This is shipped in large tin 
cans to Antwerp in Belgium. Here chemists examine 
the extract, and if it is pure it is put up in the small 
cans in which you buy it. From Antwerp it is sent 
to all parts of the world. 

All portions of the animal are used. The hides 
are shipped for leather. Horns and hoofs are valuable 
in making glue. The meat that is left after the ex- 
tract is obtained is made into a fertilizer. The bones 
are ground and mixed with this meat. 

Montevideo is frequently spoken of as one of the 
most beautiful residence cities in the world. Its 
location, midway of the south coast of the country 
and on the estuary of the Plata River, gives it a great 
commercial advantage. Here the mouth of the river 
is over 50 miles wide. This city of more than 300,000 
is built partly upon a small peninsula and partly upon 
the mainland bordering a large semicircular bay. The 
bay stretches around to the west of the city. Encir- 
cling this bay is an embankment which serves as a pro- 
tection to the city and as a pleasant promenade. 
Scattered over the city are beautiful residences and 
gardens where trees are grown and flowers bloom the 
year round. 

Back of the city toward the west side of the bay is 



106 



SOUTH AMERICA 



a hill 500 feet high. The city slopes gently down to 
the bay and from the hill called El Cerro^ or the Mount; 
an excellent view may be obtained. Montevideo 
means, ''Behold the Mountain." Do you remember 
that the city of Montreal in Canada is named from a 
similar hill, called Mount Royal ? Upon the slopes 



i: J ^ .^J 




iinflll^ 




Fig. 42. — Legislature building, Montevideo. 

of El Cerro there are grass and foliage. Upon the 
top there is a fort. There is also a lighthouse, the 
revolving light of which can be seen to a distance of 
25 miles. 

The capital of Uruguay is a most attractive city. 
Many of the buildings are modern and imposing. The 
general type of architecture is Italian. Of the buildings 



URUGUAY 



107 




108 SOUTH AMERICA 

the legislative palace is among the most beautiful in 
the world. There are many elegant theaters, the 
Solis being the finest. The city has a magnificent 
cathedral and excellent municipal buildings. The 
Calla Zabala and Boulevard 18 de Juho, named in 
remembrance of the day upon which the republic was 
founded, are beautiful thoroughfares. The Plaza and 
Zabala Square are much frequented. 

The city is especially clean, the slope to the water 
front giving excellent sewer and drainage facilities. 
Montevideo shows signs of much refinement. Educa- 
tion is well advanced, and music and art are given 
attention. In the neighborhood of Montevideo are 
several beach resorts. These are patronized not only 
by the residents of the city but by many visitors from 
Buenos Aires. 

Name what you think to be the chief exports of 
Montevideo. Give a reason for your statement. 

There are several other smaller cities important as 
shipping points. Paysandu, Salto and Fray Bentos, 
all are on the Uruguay. At Salto there are several 
meat salting factories. Here the river is very wide. 
The Liebig extract factory is located at Fray Bentos. 
Other towns are San Jose, Santa Lucia, Rocha and 
Maldanoda in the south, the latter on the coast. 
Mercedes is on a branch of the Uruguay in the south- 
west part of the country. 



URUGUAY 109 

For every two dollars' worth of exports from Uruguay 
to the United States, three dollars' worth are imported 
from our country to Uruguay. About one third the 
entire imports of Uruguay come from Great Britain. 
The term Banda Oriental is sometimes applied to the 
country because it lies east of the great Uruguay River. 
The Spanish language is generally spoken. The 
standing army is composed of those who have served 
in the penitentiary or have committed some crime. 
'All classes are inveterate cigarette smokers. The 
prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic. Education 
of the primary grades is compulsory throughout the 
republic. There is more money spent for education, 
considering the size of the population, than in any other 
country in South America. 

The Rio de la Plata River, which is formed by the 
Parana and Paraguay, is in reality a bay, or wide 
estuary mouth. While it does not flow through 
Uruguay or in fact through Argentina, it is of the 
greatest importance to these countries. Sebastian 
Cabot named the river about 1520, the name meaning 
^^ river of silver." Some say that the name was applied 
on account of the great quantities of silver which 
Cabot took from the Indians along the shores. At its 
mouth the river is 120 miles wide. The river carries 
down silt which colors the water dark yellow. This 
color is discernible in the waters of the Atlantic to 



110 SOUTH AMERICA 

a distance of 100 miles from the river's mouth. The 
water of the river is fresh until only a few miles above 
Montevideo. The average depth of the Plata in the 
vicinity of Montevideo is only about 50 feet. Navi- 
gation is made somewhat difficult by the many rocks 
and shoals. Uruguay^ through its capital city, Monte- 
videO; is virtualty in control of the entrance to the 
Plata River. As this river means so much to Paraguay, 
Argentina and Bolivia, it is easy to understand how 
important is the position of Uruguay. 

Not only are large quantities of dried meats shipped 
from Montevideo, but there has developed an excel- 
lent market for fresh meats. 

There are a number of railroads in Uruguay. Most 
of these center in Montevideo. One line connects 
Montevideo with Paysandu, while another crosses 
the country to the Brazilian frontier. Other lines 
connect the city with other portions of the country. 



CHAPTER XI 

CHILE 

When you look at 3^our map of South America^ the 
country marked ''Chile" appears to be little else than 
a mountain range extending from north to south. 
However, Chile is one of the most important of the 
countries of South America. Its extent of coast line 
from north to south is nearly 3000 miles. Its width 
from east to west is nowhere more than 200 miles and 
the average width is only 90 miles. Through its entire 
length the Pacific Ocean washes its western side. 
Peru lies to the north, and Bolivia and Argentine 
Republic join it on the east. The mountain chain 
that appears to cover the entire country, forms its 
eastern boundar}^, the boundary line extending along the 
crest of the range. This narrow strip of land lying be- 
tween the Andes and the ocean is cut by numerous short, 
rapid rivers in its central and southern portions. In the 
southern half, the coast is rough and uneven and many 
small islands exist. This coast reminds you of the 
fjord coast of Norway or that of Southern Alaska. 

Chile is the longest country for its width in the 

111 



112 SOUTH AMERICA 

world. It is as far from north to south as from Chicago 
to San Francisco. Its coast Hne would reach from 
Labrador to Key West. The country covers an area 
equal to that of Texas and Louisiana combined, and 
has a population of more than three and a quarter 
millions of people. You will be surprised to learn 
that the people of Chile live under a republican form 
of government, just as we do in the United States. 
This form of government has existed since 1833. The 
President is elected for a term of five years. How 
long is the term of office of the President of our own 
country ? Chile is divided into twenty-three provinces 
and one national territory. 

On account of the grandeur of its scenery, Chile 
has been called the '' Italy of South America." Because 
of the fertihty of its soil in the south, and central por- 
tions, the name '^garden" has been applied to the 
country. 

The climate in the north is dry. The high Andes 
Mountains chill the trade winds which blow over South 
America from the east, and the rain falls on their 
eastern slopes In the central part of Chile and toward 
the south, the winds blow from the Pacific and deposit 
their moisture on the narrow plain. The climate 
is here cool and pleasant, much as it is in the northern 
portion of the Mississippi Valley. In the north the 
entire region is a desert, called the Desert of Atacama. 



CHILE 113 

The central region is remarkably fertile, and agriculture 
is carried on extensively. In the south are plains 
and pasture lands. There are forests upon the slopes 
of the mountains. 

Owing to its great extent of coast line every portion 
of Chile can be reached by water from the Pacific side. 
For this reason, and on account of the great number of 
indentations and protected landing places, there are 
several ports where vessels may put in and discharge 
goods or take on their cargoes bound for European or 
United States ports. 

In the north of Chile there is a central valley or 
plateau formed by two ranges of mountains — the 
Andes on the east and coast range or western Cordillera 
on the west. Extending east and west between these 
two ranges are mountain ridges. This plateau extends 
south from Atacama 700 miles, with a width of 50 
to 60 miles. Toward the south it becomes lower 
and lower. 

The Desert of Atacama is practically without rain 
or vegetation. It is a dreary place in which to live, 
yet should you visit Chile you would find many people 
living and working there. This desert is worth more 
to the people than is any other part of the country. 
Chile produces minerals of great value. But the one 
of greatest value is called nitrate of soda. This nitrate 
occurs in deposits or layers just beneath the surface, 



114 SOUTH AMERICA 

and is easily dug up. It is found on this desert plateau 
scattered over a territory 460 miles long and about 
3 miles wide. The nitrate is hard, and white in color 
unless mixed with other substances or discolored. 

Nitrate is shipped to Europe in great quantities. 
It is used on soil as a fertilizer. In Germany particu- 
larly, where sugar beets are extensively grown, the 
nitrogen is taken out of the soil. Nitrate renews this, 
and enriches the ground. It is also used to make nitric 
acid and iodine, and much of it goes into the manu- 
facture of gunpowder. Not only Germany, but Great 
Britain, France and the United States buy large 
quantities of nitrate. 

How these immense beds of nitrate came to be 
deposited in the Desert of Atacama is not absolutely 
known. Perhaps at one time, centuries ago, this 
desert was a vast lake. When the waters dried up, 
this substance was left, and on account of the dry 
atmosphere has remained to the present day. 

Large tanks or vats are filled with hot water and 
the nitrate is then dissolved in them. The pure 
nitrate cools in the form of crystals when the water 
is taken out. Valparaiso and other ports ship much 
nitrate. The fertilizer which you buy to put upon 
your lawn, or around your trees or upon the field 
contains nitrogen, and Chile furnishes most of this. 
Whenever a tract of land has been used for years 



CHILE 115 

without fertilizings or when there has not been proper 
crop rotation — that is, a change of crop every few 
years — nitrate must be used to enrich the soil. Now 
you can understand why Chile is a wealthy and im- 
portant country. 

In the great central valley of Chile the soil is fertile. 
Here there grow apples, melons, grapes and other 
fruits and vegetables. Wheat and other cereals are 
grown in abundance. The sugar beet and tobacco 
are also important crops. On the grassy plains stock 
is raised and butter and cheese are produced. Hides 
and tallow are sent to European cities. There is con- 
siderable mining, and copper, coal, gold and silver are 
produced. Upon the mountain sides timber flourishes. 
Lumbering is an important industry. At the sea- 
coast many people are engaged in fishing. Manufac- 
turing is carried on to a considerable extent. 

South of the central plain is a vast region extending 
to the point of the continent. In this section the rain- 
fall is plentiful. In the northern portion cattle graze 
upon the plains, and wheat, barley and fruits are grown. 
Farther south the mountains are forest covered and 
lumbering is a profitable industry. The Chilean pine 
grows to a height of 200 and even 250 feet. The trunk 
is light in color and sometimes 10 to 15 feet in diameter. 
Where are the largest trees on our continent ? Other 
trees are the oak^ from which ships, cars and vehicles 



116 SOUTH AMERICA 

are made^ the cypress^ walnut, cedar, ash and beech. 
Fishing is also a profitable industry. In the plains to 
the south, and where the forests have been cut away, 
great bands of sheep roam. Mutton is shipped to 
England. 

Other productions of importance in Chile are sulphur, 
guano, petroleum and natural gas. Flax is grown and 
horses are raised in great numbers. Manufacturing of 
many kinds goes on in the larger cities, the making of 
boots and shoes being one of the most important. 

Of the chief cities, Santiago, the capital, is of interest. 
Santiago is situated 60 miles from Valparaiso, which is 
on the coast, but by rail the distance is twice as great. 
Santiago was settled in the year 1541, when the first 
settlement was called Santa Lucia by the Spanish ex- 
plorer, Valdivia. The city is situated upon a plateau 
over 1700 feet in height and 40 miles long and half as 
wide. The climate is delightful and the scenery grand. 
All fruits, vegetables and grains of the temperate zone 
flourish here. As in California in the old days or in 
parts of Mexico to-day, the haciendas or plantations on 
this plateau are very large. Cattle and horses are 
raised extensively. In some places great eucalyptus 
trees border the farms. 

Santiago is the third city in size in South America, 
only Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires being larger. 
The city is situated upon a plain surrounded by lofty 



CHILE 



117 



mountains, some of which are permanently snow- 
covered. It has many beautiful buildings and parks. 
An avenue 350 feet wide and 3 miles long has a park 
through the center in which is placed monuments to 
the heroes of the country. The architecture of the 




Courtesy of Pan American Vnion. 

Fig. 44. — Scene in Santiago with the Cordilleras as a background. 

city is Spanish in character. In the center of Santiago 
there is a hill rising to a height of 300 feet. Here are 
fine homes and splendid drives. This hill is called the 
Cerro de Santa Lucia. 

Valparaiso, on the Pacific Coast, is the largest port 
and, after Santiago, the largest city. Its population 
is over 250,000. Many of its buildings are modern. 



118 SOUTH AMERICA 

but the language and a touch of the old life here and 
there lend to the city an interesting foreign aspect. 
Valparaiso is built at the foot of a mountain ridge upon 
a fine harbor. An embankment or sea-wall called a 
Malecon extends along, the beach. The people are 
chiefly Germans, Italians and French. The Spanish 
language is used, and throughout the city Spanish signs 
are displayed. Yet most of those Chileans who belong 
to the business and professional classes speak English 
as well as French and Spanish. 

There is much manufacturing done at Valparaiso. 
Most of the retail trade is carried on with France. 
Wheat, nitrate, copper, cabinet and dye woods, hides, 
tallow and other products are exported. Manufactured 
articles are brought in. Practically the entire city has 
been rebuilt since 1906, when a destructive earthquake 
visited it. Both Santiago and Valparaiso are subject 
to earthquake disturbances. A short distance from 
the city, a beautiful suburb. Vino del Mar, is the home 
of many of the wealthy people. 

From Valparaiso, the great Transandine, or Trans- 
Andean Railway winds its way over the Andes, past 
Santiago and on to Buenos Aires. This road was com- 
pleted in 1910. It follows the Uspallata Pass, one of 
the many passes through the mountains. At Cumbra 
it is 12,800 feet above sea level and here there is a 
tunnel 2 miles long and half a mile below the surface. 



CHILE 



119 




120 SOUTH AMERICA 

In the old days, travel by pack train through the Andes 
could not be carried on in winter on account of the snow. 
Much danger was experienced in making the journey. 
Just north of Cumbra is Aconcagua, the '^Monarch of 
the Andes." This is one of the highest peaks in the 
world. Compare it with Mt. Everest in the Himalayas, 
and Mt. McKinley in Alaska. (See p. 8.) Many of 
the mountain peaks are snow covered, and glaciers 
creep down the mountain sides. 

Of the other cities of Chile, La Concepcion, on the 
Bio-Bio river, Iquique, Antofagasta, and Punta Arena 
are among the most important. Concepcion is on the 
coast south of Valparaiso. It is an important shipping 
point. Cattle, wheat and grains are exported from 
Concepcion. Antofagasta, a city of some 20,000 
people, lies 700 miles north of Valparaiso. Iquique is 
on the coast well toward the northern boundary of Chile. 

Punta Arena, or Sandy Point, lies farther south than 
any other city in the world. It was first established as 
a settlement for criminals, but as those who were im- 
prisoned here escaped, the city has been built up. 
Punta Arena is situated on the Strait of Magellan, and 
here steamers take on coal as they pass back and forth. 
There is perhaps no other place in the world, situated 
so far from a large center of population, that receives 
visitors from so many nations. Ships not only take on 
coal, which is mined near at hand, but Punta Arena 



CHILE 



121 




Fig. 46. — Aconcagua. 



122 



SOUTH AMERICA 



sends out furs, gold, silver and other minerals ; cattle, 
hides and wool. Vegetables are furnished here to the 
sailors. 

The city has about 12,000 people. The inhabitants 
are Europeans and Indians. The Indians who live in 




Courtesy of Lamport and Holt Line. 

Fig. 47. — Laguna del Inca, Andes. 

the vicinity and along the Strait of Magellan hunt and 
fish, and trade with the people of the town. 

By looking at your map you will find the southern 
part of the coast of Chile bordered with islands. Be- 
ginning with the Island of Chiloe in the north, one of 
the largest of the group, these islands follow the curve 



CHILE 



123 



of the coast, leaving a channel between them and the 
mainland 50 to 80 miles wide. Some of these islands 
are 2000 feet in height. Perhaps at one time the 
Cordillera or mountain chain extended as far as these 
islands, and what is now the narrow channel was once 




Fig. 48. — Magellan Straits. 



Photo by William G. Reed. 



land. Wellington Island, the largest, is 140 miles 
long and 30 wide. 

Upon many of these islands cattle and sheep are 
pastured. Grains, vegetables and fruits are grown. 
Toward the south there are many varieties of trees 
furnishing valuable woods. The vegetation is luxuriant, 
and flowering creepers and moss cover the branches as 
in tropical regions. On the southernmost islands and 
on the mainland near the Strait the vegetation is low 



124 SOUTH AMERICA ' 

and scrubby. The only tree is the beech of the antarctic 
regions. This is bent and twisted by the heavy winds 
and blowing sand. 

Tierra del Fuego is the large island just south of the 
Strait of Magellan. This land was named by Magellan. 
As his vessel approached he saw many fires scattered 
here and there. Tierra del Fuego means '^Land of 
Fire.'^ The natives kept fires burning constantly as 
a part of their religious ceremony. 

Cape Horn is at the point of a small island just south 
of Tierra del Fuego. It was named by Hoorn^ an 
explorer from Holland^ who visited the country in the 
year 1616. He named the cape from Hoorn on the 
Hoornerhopj a bay of the Zuyder Zee in North Holland. 
Cape Horn is nearly 1400 feet in height. On this 
rocky promontory wild celery grows in abundance and 
mushrooms are plentiful. In the surrounding waters 
fish abound. Pigeons and ducks are found in great 
numbers. About two thirds of Tierra del Fuego be- 
longs to Chile and the remainder to Argentina. 

Sailing vessels travel around the Horn. This is a 
dangerous journey^ and sailors say there is no water so 
much feared as that south of Cape Horn. Storms rage 
here very frequently. Steam vessels usually pass 
through the Strait of Magellan. The passage is 400 
miles long and in some places as much as 20 miles wide. 
Cape Froword, about the middle of the strait, is the 



CHILE 125 

most southern part of the mainland of South America. 
The governments of Chile and Argentina have placed 
floating buoys in the Strait to point out the dangerous 
places, but these buo3^s are constantly shifted about by 
the heavy waves. Icebergs are frequently to be seen 
in the Strait. On Santa Maria, a small island not far 
from Punta Arena, there are many penguins. These 




I'huio inj William G. Reed. 

Fig. 49. — English Narrows, Smyth Channel. 

birds are found chiefly in this far-away region. They 
have frequently furnished food to travelers and ex- 
plorers when all other food was exhausted. 

About 400 miles west of Valparaiso in the Pacific 
Ocean is an island belonging to Chile. This is the 
island of Juan Fernandez. It is 18 miles long and 
nearly as wide. The island has scant vegetation. A 
Scotch sailor named Alexander Selkirk, who quarreled 



126 SOUTH AMERICA 

with the officers of his ship, was put ashore on this 
island, and Hved here alone for several years. There is 
a peak 3000 feet high. Here Selkirk is supposed to 
have had his lookout, to watch for approaching vessels. 
A tablet is placed here in memory of Selkirk. 

Have you read the book Robinson Crusoe ? Defoe, 
the author, is supposed by many to have used the story 
of Selkirk for his Robinson Crusoe. Others think that 
Defoe did not describe Juan Fernandez as the island 
where Crusoe was wrecked. 

The poet Cowper has written the following lines about 
Selkirk and his solitary home : 

''I am monarch of all I survey; 
My right there is none to dispute ; 
From the center all round to the sea, 
I am lord of the fowl and the brute. 
Oh solitude ! Where are the charms, 
That sages have seen in thy face? 
Better dwell in the midst of alarms, 
Than reign in this horrible place. 

Ye winds that have made me your sport, 

Convey to this desolate shore, 

Some cordial endearing report 

Of a land I shall visit no more. 

My friends, do they now and then send 

A wish or a thought after me? 

O tell me I yet have a friend, 

Though a friend I am never to see. 



CHILE 127 

But the sea fowl has gone to her nest, 
The beast is laid down in his lair; 
Even here is a season of rest, 
And I to my cabin repair. 
There's rnercy in every place, 
And mercy — encouraging thought ! 
Gives even affliction a grace. 
And reconciles man to his lot." 

The people of Chile are sometimes called the English 
of South America. This is probably because they have 
acquired much territory in the past and reach out and 
trade with other nations. In its exports the country is 
rapidly coming to the front. The climate is healthful 
and the scenery grand in the Andes. There are many 
extinct volcanoes. In the north are several over 
20,000 feet high. Earthquakes are frequently felt up 
and down the coast. The most important navigable 
rivers are the Maule, Cantin, Bio-Bio, and Valdivia. 



CHAPTER XII 

BOLIVIA 

There are but two countries in South America that 
have no coast Hne, and Bohvia is one of them. This 
is a great commercial disadvantage. If a man had a 
farm not reached by any wagon road he might be able 
to secure permission to travel across the adjoining farm 
in order to reach one. The government of Bolivia has 
done something similar to this in order that the country 
may be in communication with points on the Pacific 
coast. Through treaties with Chile and Peru, com- 
modities and people are transported between the 
Pacific ports in these countries and La Paz. 

To construct a railroad from the coast of the Pacific 
Ocean to Bolivia is a great undertaking, for the moun- 
tains are lofty, and the grades are very steep. The 
Andes lie close to the western coast; and all of the 
material used in the construction of a road must be 
taken up their steep slopes. 

Near the southern coast of Peru is the city of Mol- 
lendo, one of the ports of that country. From here a 
railroad winds up to Puno on Lake Titicaca, a distance 

128 



BOLIVIA 129 

of 330 miles. Here the goods are transferred to small 
lake steamers and carried to the south end of the lake. 
Again they must be unloaded and once more placed in 
railroad cars at the town of Huaqui. After a haul of 
sixty miles they reach La Paz^ the largest city of 
Bolivia. This city is a little more than 12,000 feet 
above sea level, and yet it is only about 300 miles in a 
straight line from Mollendo. 

From the port of Antofagasta, Chile, La Paz can be 
reached in forty hours by the Oruro Railroad. This 
railroad is 730 miles in length. The city of Oruro from 
which the route derives its name is 12,000 feet above 
the sea, but the road reaches a greater altitude than this. 

Quite recently a third route has been opened from 
Arica. This road is more direct than either of the 
others, and it therefore has a steeper grade. On ac- 
count of the very steep grade it is a cog-wheel road for 
a part of the distance. Because of the difficulty which 
many people experience in ascending to great altitudes, 
there are oxygen compartments in some of the cars. 
In these compartments the proportion of oxygen is 
kept as it is at lower levels. 

Why have men expended the vast sums of money 
necessary to connect Bolivia with the Pacific coast by 
rail? Were these roads constructed for the purpose 
of pleasure or for profit ? In order to answer these 
questions we must learn what Bolivia has that attracts 



130 SOUTH AMERICA 

people. Before we study her products let us observe a 
map of the countiy. This shows us that several of 
the tributaries of the Amazon rise in Bolivia. By 
means of canoes in the upper reaches of the streams, 
and larger boats at lower levels, considerable of the 
trade of central and eastern Bolivia is carried on. 

The earl}^ Spanish explorers found that Boli\da was 
very rich in minerals, especially silver. From the 
region about Potosi, vast quantities of this have been 
obtained for several hundred years. The Indians who 
inhabited the land when the Spaniards first saw it 
used silver, gold, copper and tin. In all parts of the 
world men are eager to develop mines. The mineral 
wealth of Bolivia is to-day her great attraction. It is 
this that is drawing people to the country, and causing 
the construction of wonderful mountain railroads. 

It was silver that led to the establishment of Potosi 
in 1545. This city, which has an altitude about the 
same as that of Mount Blanc, has a population of some 
30,000. During the period of greatest mining excite- 
ment mam^ 3^ears ago, its population was 160,000. 
Even if the mountains were high enough a cit}^ could 
not exist at such an altitude as this in our western 
United States. Explain how it is possible in Boli^da. 

But silver is not the only mineral wealth of Boli^da. 
There are deposits of gold, copper, zinc, cobalt and tin. 
Tin is not called a precious metal, but it is very much in 



BOLIVIA 131 

demand^ and is not found in large quantities in many 
countries. A great deal of tm is exported from Bolivia. 
All of the tin deposits now being worked are at very 
great altitudes. Name some of the uses of tin. 

The great mineral wealth of Bolivia is found in the 
AndeS; here very lofty. Several of their peaks are 
20^000 feet above the sea and some of them are vol- 
canic. There are two principal ranges between which 
is one of the highest plateaus in the world. This 
plateaU; which ranges from 10,000 to 13,000 feet in 
altitude, has an area about equal to that of the state of 
Iowa. Tibet is the only inhabited plateau having a 
greater altitude than this one. 

On the plateau is Lake Titicaca. This body of water 
is 135 miles long by 70 miles wide, and in the deepest 
part a line 1000 feet long would be required to reach the 
bottom. As you have learned, small steamers are used 
in transporting goods and people from one end of the 
lake to the other. Why are not large steamers used ? 
The Indian inhabitants of the region use rafts and 
boats made of reeds that grow along the shores of the 
lake. These simple boats are called halsas. 

From the deck of a steamer on the lake the passenger 
sees the inclosing walls of mountains, and observes 
that many of the peaks are snow covered and some 
conical in shape, indicating that they are volcanoes. 
On the slopes he can see villages and terraced fields 



132 



SOUTH AMERICA 



where the hardy Indian people grow their crops. The 
houses are generally made of stone^ for this part of 
Bolivia has not much timber^ although in the eastern 
part there are great forests. Explain this. 

Upon this well-protected plateau the Spanish ex- 
plorers found a high Indian civilization. The natives 




( ijurit s/y i>j \ (Lit I }iivtr\ity. 

Fig. 50. — Lake Titicaca. Indian in the " balsa " towing balsas 
loaded with rushes. (Photo by Professor Isaiah Bowman.) 



lived in villages, tilled the soil, had domesticated the 
llama, alpaca and vicuna, and made clothing from their 
hair. They also worked in silver, gold, bronze and 
leather, and had established a form of government. 

The rulers of these people both in Peru and Bolivia 
were known as Incas. According to tradition the first 
Inca, whose name was Manco Capac, together with his 



BOLIVIA 



133 




Cuurtt^y uj " Suutii America.' 



Fig. 51. — Cholo boys of La Paz. 



134 SOUTH AMERICA 

wife, came from one of the islands in Lake Titicaca. 
This is called the Island of the Sun, and the members 
of this family were believed to be the direct descendants 
of the sun. According to the story, Manco Capac 
taught the men how to till the soil, while his wife in- 
structed the women in spinning and weaving. 

It is estimated that there were some 20,000,000 of 
these people in the region extending from Bolivia north- 
ward. Roads and monuments which they built still 
remain as evidences of their civilization. Unlike most 
of the Indians of North America, they were not warlike, 
and a few Spanish soldiers easily conquered them. 

The descendants of these people are to-day found on 
the plateau. They are usually rather short and are, of 
course, dark skinned. They have little ambition, and 
seem willing to take conditions as they find them. The 
men generally go barefooted. Their trousers are short 
and wide, and are split to the knee at the back. This 
gives greater freedom in climbing. On their heads 
they wear caps or hoods that fit very closely, and over 
this a hat of heavy felt or one of straw. An outer gar- 
ment, which is practically a blanket, is known as a 
poncho. This, which may be red, brown or green, 
makes the costume very picturesque. 

The hair of the women is black and is worn in braids. 
Bright-colored shoes and many skirts are worn. A 
colored scarf, called a rehosa,is thrown over the shoulders. 



BOLIVIA 



135 



As they always carry their burdens on their heads, they 
walk gracefully. Like most primitive people they are 
fond of music and color. 

You would find life upon this lofty plateau interest- 
ing, but very cheerless. The great altitude makes 




Courtesy of " South America." 

Fig. 52. — Market place, La Paz. 

breathing difficult. The houses are without modern 
improvements. Even in La Paz there are very few 
stores. It is hot during the day and cold at night. 
Merchandise is very expensive because of the high cost 
of transportation. Coal costs from $30.00 to $50.00 
per ton, although on the coast a ton can be bought 



136 SOUTH AMERICA 

for $5.00. Meat, vegetables and fruits are hard to 
obtain. 

Aside from the railroads spoken of, and the lake, 
llamas furnish the only means of transporting commodi- 
ties. These are used because neither horses nor mules 
can endure the high altitude so well. The llama prac- 
tically gets its own living as it goes along, but it can 
carry only about 100 pounds. 

The locomotives which draw the trains from the 
coast to the plateau do not enter La Paz. This is 
because La Paz is situated in a canon 1100 feet below 
the level of the table-land. At the edge of the canon 
the locomotives are detached, and the cars are taken to 
and fro by means of electric motors. 

The streets are steep and narrow, and the houses that 
face them are generally painted some bright color, and 
have red-tiled roofs. The city was founded by the 
Spanish in 1548 because of the gold in the vicinity. It 
is one of the highest cities in the world, being 12,307 
feet above the sea. Its population is about 80,000, and 
this is the largest city in the republic. La Paz means 
the City of Peace. 

As already stated, central and eastern Bolivia are 
well watered, and have great forests. Here, as else- 
where in Bolivia, the population is largely Indian. In 
fact, only about 25 per cent of the total population is 
white. The forests produce much rubber, cocoa and 



BOLIVIA 137 

Peruvian bark. In the more thickly settled portions 
some coffee is cultivated. 

Bolivia takes its name from Simon Bolivar, who did 
much for the independence of the people of South 
America. He is regarded by the people of that con- 
tinent about as George Washington is in the United 
States. 

The area of Bolivia is more than three times that of 
the German Empire, but its population is very small, 
being only about three to the square mile. It will 
never be a great agricultural country, and will never 
rank high in manufacturing. Minerals and the prod- 
ucts of the tropical forest will continue to be its main 
sources of wealth. Improvement in transportation 
facilities between this country and the United States 
and Europe by the way of the Amazon will do much for 
Bolivia. 



CHAPTER XIII 

PERU 

Peru is the name which the Spanish conquerors 
gave to the western part of South America stretching 
from Colombia to Chile. They found here a remark- 
able race of Indians. No doubt much that has been 
written concerning these people is exaggerated, yet the 
evidence that remains shows that in many ways they 
had made wonderful progress. 

The rulers were called Incas, and their power was 
absolute. As you have already been told, they were 
believed to be the direct descendants of the sun, and 
were practically worshiped by their subjects. They 
lived in great buildings of stone which were erected 
without the help of machinery. 

The different parts of the empire were connected by 
roads which wound over mountains and crossed streams. 
These roads were not constructed for purposes of trade, 
but to enable the rulers to govern their people, for the 
roads furnished a means of rapidly moving the army 
from place to place. Sections of these old roads, as 

138 



PERU 139 

well as the ruins of monuments, temples and palaces, 
are seen to-day by the traveler in Peru. 

The capital of this ancient empire was Cuzco. It 
was defended by great stone walls. Some of the blocks 
of stone used were 38 by 18 by 6 feet in their dimen- 
sions. These immense masses of stone were moved 
long distances, but it is not known how this was ac- 
complished. Although no mortar was used, the stones 
were fitted together very carefully. 

In Cuzco was located the most remarkable of the 
temples. It was known as the Temple of the Sun, for 
these people were sun worshipers. Upon its walls 
were plates of gold which blazed in the bright sunshine. 
There were precious stones and many objects of gold, 
silver and bronze in this building. These treasures 
were quickly taken by the conquerors, and the build- 
ings were partially or wholly destroyed. During the 
early colonial days Cuzco was an important city, but 
it is now small and dirty. It is situated 11,380 feet 
above sea level. A visit to this land so rich in history 
is both interesting and instructive. 

The Peru of to-day, while only a part of the ancient 
empire, is about three times as large as Texas, yet 
there are fewer people in the country than there are in 
New York City. The coast line of Peru is remarkably 
regular, a fact in part due to the rising of the land. 
Because of this regularity there are few natural harbors. 



140 



SOUTH AMERICA 



As to surface, Peru is divided into three sections. 
Along the coast there is a narrow plain. Here it very 
seldom rains, and crops cannot be raised without irri- 
gation. Explain why this belt is dry. On the culti- 
vated land cotton^ sugar, rice^ corn, coffee, olives, 
fruits, grapes and alfalfa are grown. 




Photo by Chester W. Brown. 



Fig. 53. — Plowing in Peru. 



The coastal plain would be hotter than it is were it 
not for the influence of the ocean. A cold current which 
moves northward along the western coast of South 
America has a moderating influence. This is known 
as the Humboldt Current. 

Callao is the chief port. Its harbor has been greatly 
improved and is now quite safe. A railroad leads from 



PERU 



141 







H 






H 



142 SOUTH AMEBIC A 

Callao to Lima; the capital, and beyond. Many of 
the business men of Callao live in Lima, which is but 
9 miles distant, and has a better climate. 

Lima was founded by Francisco Pizarro. The name 
means the City of the Kings. It is a modern city in 
every way, having electric light, cars, gas, telephones, 
paved streets, parks and other improvements. One 
hundred years before the founding of Harvard College 
the Spaniards established a university in Lima. 

The city is built on a broad, fertile plain at an altitude 
of 500 feet. Its temperature is very uniform. A 
southwest wind is greatly welcomed, and is called by 
the people the ^^ Callao doctor." What is the prevailing 
wind? Some of the buildings have massive street 
doors, ornamented with brass. The older houses have 
barred windows and balconies of carved mahogany. 
The city has a population of more than 100,000. 

In the southern part of Peru is MoUendo, another 
seaport, although it has no harbor. As you have 
learned, a railroad connects this port with La Paz, 
Bolivia. It also connects Arequipa, and other Peruvian 
points with the coast. Owing to the lack of rainfall, 
the water used in Mollendo is obtained in the moun- 
tains many miles away and is piped to the city. 

In going from Mollendo to Arequipa the traveler 
crosses the Islay Desert. Here there are remarkable 
sand dunes. They are crescent-shaped, and are slowly 



PEBir 



143 




Fig. 55. — Zoological gardens. 
National Museum, Lima. 



' ourtcsy oj Vale University. 

Royal palms and a corner of the 
(Photo by Hiram Bingham.) 



144 



SOUTH AMERICA 



drifted by the winds. Why are sand dunes more com- 
mon in dry than in moist regions ? 

At Arequipa^ which is 8000 feet above the sea, an 
astronomical observatory has been estabhshed by Har- 
vard University. From this observatory many stars 
not visible in New England can be studied. Why is 



^ 


ji^'il 




^W^m 


1^'^^ ••>?•,:., S^^^l 


^:^^««;/* '-..:,:::;''■■■ 


W^^^^Z^^^' 


',;,:*;#> 


wK^t' ^^^HhI 




'^'-'^m^m 




I^^M^^MUlw 




hI^^H 


^ ^- ' 'mm 




m 





Courtesy of Yale University. 

Fig. 56. — Hotel Francia-Inglaterre, Lima. 
(Photo by Hiram Bingham.) 

this so ? The observatory also has the advantage of 
being in a region where the skies are usually bright. 

Beyond Arequipa is the volcano known as El Misti. 
This is one of the many volcanoes in Peru. In the 
valleys between the mountain ranges sugar, cotton, 
melons, wheat, corn, potatoes and other crops are grown. 
The plow is generally a crooked stick drawn by oxen. 



PERU 145 

In some places the grain is threshed under the feet of 
animals as it is in the Holy Land. The houses are 
commonly made of bowlders^ and have thatched roofs 
with a layer of clay on top. 

The second division of the surface features of Peru 
is known as the Sierra. This is made up of high moun- 




Phuio by Chester W. Brown. 

Fig. 57. — Sand dune, Peru. 

tains, table-lands and valleys. As climate depends 
upon altitude as well as upon latitude^ these higher 
portions of Peru have a delightful climate. For every 
300 feet that one ascends from the level of the sea 
the temperature falls, on the average, one degree 
Fahrenheit. 



146 



SOUTH AMERICA 




PERU 



147 



A great basin some 500 miles long, and varying from 
25 to 300 miles in width, lies between the mountains. 
It was here that the Spanish explorers found the bulk 
of the population when they landed. In the mountain 
region the llama and the vicuna are the chief beasts of 



^ -"'-- - ■' -^.ikMs^ .^^%^M -r^^. 1 . 3h^^^^^-' 




BS3IP^^^jHfcifci»iM*=^"^faj^iCg^<i 







Photo by Chester W. Brown. 

Fig. 59. — Arequipa and El Misti. 

burden. The llama, which, when full grown, is about 
six feet in height, has been used by the Indians for ages. 
It is useful in many ways. The flesh and the milk are 
used as food, from the skin garments are made, the 
hair is used as we use wool. In ancient times the sinews 



148 



SOUTH AMEBIC A 




PERU 149 

furnished thread. The vicuna is smaller than the 
llama and has a wool that is as fine as silk. 

The third division of Peru is called the montana. 
This is a lofty mountain region, about two thirds of 
which is forested. These mountains are of great value 




Photo by Chester W. Brown. 
Fig. 61. — Old Inca Aqueduct in Peru. 

to the country, for they condense the moisture in the 
trade winds and cause an abundant rainfall on the 
eastern slope. In this section the wet season begins in 
October. 

Much rubber is produced in the montana, as are also 
cocoa, vanilla and dye woods. These are sent eastward 



150 SOUTH AMERICA 

by way of the streams that flow into the Amazon. 
Locate Iquitos. Quite large vessels navigate the river 
to this point, and it is rapidly becoming important as 
a rubber-exporting center. 

As in Bolivia, the mineral wealth is the greatest 
resource of the country. It is said that if all of the 
silver that has been mined in Peru had been made into 
silver dollars, they would, if placed side by side, en- 
circle the globe seven times at the equator. In addi- 
tion to silver there are deposits of gold, copper, iron, 
coal, petroleum, salt and borax. 



CHAPTER XIV 

ECUADOR 

Ecuador takes its name from the equator, which 
crosses the northern part of the country. With the 
exception of Paraguay and Uruguay it is the smallest 
of the republics of South America, and yet its area is 
equal to that of the state of Colorado. The largest 
gulf on the western coast of South America belongs to 
Ecuador. Name and locate it. 

Ecuador is a land of lofty mountains. There are 
more than 100 that are higher than Pike's Peak, and 
of these about 30 are snow-capped throughout the year. 
Some 50 of these mountains are volcanoes. Cotopaxi, 
19,613 feet in altitude, is one of the most lofty vol- 
canoes in the world. Antisana, Illiniza and Cayambe 
are other very lofty volcanoes. 

Being in the belt of calms, Ecuador is well watered, 
and as a result, streams are numerous. Her largest 
river is the Guayas, the largest stream on the western 
coast of South America. The rivers are so short and 
swift that with the exception of the one mentioned, 
they are of no commercial value. The eastern part of 

151 



152 SOUTH AMERICA 

the republic is drained by some of the tributaries of the 
Amazon. The Napo, one of these^ is navigable. 

Guayaquil, which according to the map appears to 
be situated on the coast, is really about 45 miles up the 
Guayas River. Along the stream the graceful bamboo, 
the mangrove and many other forms of tropical vege- 
tation may be seen. The Indians live in huts built 
of poles, with walls and roof of palm leaves. The city 
has a population of about 120,000. Tremendous 
quantities of cocoa are exported from Guayaquil, as it 
is the chief port of the country. Because of its situa- 
tion, about three fourths of the exports of Ecuador 
pass through Guayaquil. Guayaquil is connected 
with Quito by rail. 

If you will examine a map of South America, you will 
see that Quito, the capital of Ecuador, is situated close 
to the equator. As a matter of fact, it is 15 or 20 miles 
south of it. When in the streets of this city, one is 
between 9,000 and 10,000 feet above the sea, yet owing 
to the latitude it is never cold there. Here, as at all 
points on the equator, the sun rises exactly in the east 
and sets in the west, and day and night are equal at all 
times of the year. 

Near the city is the extinct volcano Pichincha, the 
summit of which is much higher than that of any moun- 
tain in the United States outside of Alaska. But this 
is only one of many lofty mountains in the vicinity. 



J 



ECUADOR 



153 




154 SOUTH AMERICA 

Eleven snow-capped peaks can be seen from Ecuador^s 
capital. The observer of these snow fields can^ in the 
same moment, see geraniumS; roses, tulips and many 
other flowers all about him, no matter what the time of 
year. This illustrates the influence of elevation upon 
temperature. 

Two deep ravines extend through the city in a general 
east to west direction, and in these, streams flow. The 
streets are for the most part very narrow, but straight. 
They are paved with cobble stones. Here and there 
we see a public fountain where the people obtain their 
supply of water. 

In the intensely bright sunshine the buildings appear 
to be almost pure white. With their roofs of red tile 
they are very picturesque as seen through the foliage 
of the trees. The homes of the better class are built 
around a court or patio, and have wide projecting roofs. 
The entrance to the courtyard is generally made large 
enough to admit a horseman. 

While electric light is common in the houses as well 
as in the streets, candles are still used by some of the 
poorer people. 

Many religious paintings are made in Quito and 
exported to various points. Small flgures carved from 
vegetable ivory find a ready sale. Much lace and 
embroidery work is done by the women. 

The streets present a variety of life. There are, of 



ECUADOR 



155 




156 SOUTH AMERICA j^ 

course, many Indians. The men wear bright-colored 
ponchos, broad-brimmed hats of felt, and wide, white 
cotton trousers. Llamas are seen in the streets, and 
there are carriages drawn by horses. In the largest 
shops goods from New York, as well as from the large 
cities of Europe, are displayed. The population of the 
city is about 100,000. 

On the lowlands there are sugar, rice, cotton, banana, 
tobacco and coffee plantations. From the forests 
come rubber, chinchona bark, sarsaparilla, vanilla and 
the vegetable ivory. This so-called ivory is the nut 
of the tagua palm. The nuts, which are encased in a 
brown shell, average about one inch in diameter. They 
sell for about $2.00 per hundred in Guayaquil. They 
are exported to Hamburg, Germany, where they are 
used in the manufacture of buttons. Ecuador is one 
of the world's chief producers of cocoa. 

On the plateau where a temperate climate prevails, 
we find wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, beans, cattle, sheep 
and horses. 

Ecuador has some mineral wealth, gold, silver, 
emeralds and coal being produced. In fact Esmeraldas 
was given its name because formerly emeralds were ex- 
ported from the place. Locate this city. 

The Indians usually carry their burdens upon their 
backs. The load is supported by means of a strap that 
passes across the forehead. The women do most of 



ECUADOB 157 

the work. One of their occupations is the manufac- 
ture of Panama hats. As they usually work but a short 
time each day, several months are sometimes consumed 
in making a single hat. 

The century plant serves a variety of purposes. 
From it a fiber is obtained which is used in the manufac- 
ture of sandals. Its leaves are used to thatch the roofs 
of native houses, and from them a kind of soap is manu- 
factured. The flowers of the plant are boiled, soaked 
in vinegar and used as a pickle. The women use the 
fiber of the plantain also in making cloth. This plant 
belongs to the banana family, and yields a fruit from 
which cakes are made. 

Some of the native grasses are used in making hats, 
mats, fans and hammocks. Until commerce is highly 
developed people depend very largely upon the mate- 
rials which their own country produces, and this is as 
true in Ecuador as it is elsewhere. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE COCOA INDUSTRY OF ECUADOR 

Cocoa is a drink that is used in most parts of the 
world, and chocolate is sold in stores wherever one may 
go. These commodities were unknown in Europe until 
after the Spanish first visited Mexico. Cortez found 
that the people of Mexico were very fond of a drink 
called by them ''chocolatl." As used by these people, 
chocolatl was a froth-like drink almost as thick as 
honey. ''This beverage, if so it could be called, was 
served (to the rulers) in golden goblets, with spoons of 
the same material or of tortoise shell and finely 
wrought." 

The Indians of South America were also fond of 
this drink. The Spaniards introduced this beverage 
into their own countr}^, but it was some time before 
its use spread to other parts of Europe. It is not so 
very long since its use was considered injurious, but it 
is now known to be very nutritious. 

To-day a very large part of the world's supply of 
cocoa comes from Ecuador. It is said that this coun- 
try has the largest cocoa plantation in the world. 

158 



THE COCOA INDUSTRY OF ECUADOR 159 

During the harvesting seasons more than 300 work- 
men are employed on this plantation. In fact cocoa 
is the most important export of Ecuador. It finds its 
way to other countries through the city of Guayaquil. 

Cocoa *and chocolate are obtained from the seeds of 
the cacao tree. This tree grows both wild and culti- 
vated in Ecuador. It is a bushy tree, seldom reaching 
a height of more than twenty feet. The Ecuadorian 
planter places his trees about fifteen feet apart. Some- 
times banana trees are planted between the rows to 
shade the young trees. When about five or six years 
old, the cacao tree begins to bear, and continues to 
yield for thirty or forty years. Although the fruit is 
ripening at all times of the year there are two main 
harvests. These occur about June and December. 

The seeds of the tree occur in pods which vary from 
six inches to one foot in length. When ripe, the pods 
are not unlike ripe cucumbers in color. The pods are 
fluted, and are somewhat pear-shaped. The stem is 
attached, however, to the large end of the fruit. 

There are often as many as fifty seeds in a pod, em- 
bedded in a pink pulp. The seeds, which are about the 
size of almonds, are white when fresh, but turn brown 
on drying. They are bitter to the taste. Two pounds 
of the seeds constitute an average annual yield per tree. 

If we could visit one of the cocoa orchards in Ecuador 
at harvest time we would see some interesting sights. 



160 SOUTH AMERICA 

The workmen carry long poles^ to one end of which 
knives are attached. By means of these knives the 
ripe pods are cut from the trees^ and allowed to fall to 
the ground. 

Instead of finding the fruit at the ends of the twigs, 
we find that the pods grow directly from the sides of 
the branches, and even from the trunks of the trees. 
Figure 64 will give you a good idea of this. 

The pods which have been cut from the trees are 
allowed to remain on the ground for about twenty-four 
hours. The next process is that of cutting open the 
pods and removing the seeds from the pulp. The 
seeds are now fermented, either in a covered box or 
under a layer of earth, after which they are dried. 

In order that they may dry rapidly the seeds are 
spread out on platforms. From time to time the Indian 
workmen stir the seeds by ineans of rakes and shovels, 
and sometimes with their bare feet. As the dew in- 
jures the crops, movable roofs are used on some of the 
larger plantations. These are fastened to frames to 
which wheels are attached. At night, and when it 
rains, the roofs are wheeled over the drying seeds. 

When the seeds are thoroughly dried they are about 
the color of red bricks. They are then shoveled into 
sacks holding about 150 pounds each. The name of 
the plantation where the seeds are produced is usually 
stamped upon each sack. The cocoa is now transported 



THE COCOA INDUSTRY OF ECUADOR 



161 




162 SOUTH AMERICA 

to Guayaquil. From this pointy as already stated, it is 
exported. 

In the process of shipment and handling some dirt 
finds its way into the sacks of cocoa. When the seeds 
or '^ beans" reach their destination they must be 
cleaned to rid them of this. The next process is the 




Permission of Walter Baker cfe Co., Ltd. 

Fig. 65. — Drying cocoa seeds. 

roasting of the seeds. This is done in a large revolving 
cylinder. As in the case of coffee, there is a pleasant 
aroma brought out by the roasting. The process 
loosens a shell surrounding the seeds. 

But the cocoa is not yet ready for the consumer. 
The seeds are now ground, forming a flour or powder. 



THE COCOA INDUSTRY OF ECUADOR 



163 



An oily substance known as ^^ cocoa butter" is sepa- 
rated from the powder by pressure. In this condition 
the product is known as cocoa. If the oil is not removed, 
the product is called chocolate. Unless sugar be added 
to the chocolate, it is bitter. 

As you know, we buy chocolate in cakes. The choc- 
olate in its soft or pasty condition is run into molds 



w^met 




Fig. 66. 



Permission of Walter Baker & Co., Ltd. 

Grinding cocoa. 



and then cooled. Girls wrap the cakes in paper, and 
the chocolate is then packed in boxes ready for ship- 
ment. 

The people of the United States consume large 
amounts of cocoa and chocolate. Holland and Switzer- 



164 SOUTH AMERICA 



land import large quantities of the raw product and 
manufacture much cocoa and chocolate. Milk 
used in the manufacture of chocolate, and dairying is 
important in these countries. This line of manufac- 
turing enables them to use profitably one of their own 
products. 



n 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE TURTLE ISLANDS . 

A PART of the territory owned by the people of 
Ecuador hes about 600 miles west of the coast of that 
country. Here there is a group of small islands crossed 
by the equator, and cahed the Galapagos Islands. 
Locate the group. The word galapagos is the Spanish 
for turtle. The islands were given this name because 
when they were first visited by the Spanish explorers 
they were found to be inhabited by countless turtles. 

Some of these turtles were immense in size, measur- 
ing several feet across, and weighing 500 or 600 pounds. 
It is evident that they could not have reached these is- 
lands from the mainland of South America. In addition 
to the turtles, there are many forms of plant and animal 
life not found in any other part of the world. This is 
because the distance of the islands from any other land 
makes it impossible for many forms of life to pass from 
other areas to these islands. 

There are a number of islands in the group, the largest 
of which is Albemarle. The total area of the group is 
about twice that of the state of Rhode Island. The 

165 



166 SOUTH AMERICA 

latitude of these islands is 0°-38' North, to 1 °-27' 
South, so you see they are in the doldrums. 

At some time in the long-vanished past, volcanoes 
have poured their fiery floods over the islands, and the 
land has been rocked by earthquakes. Indeed, the 
islands are largely the result of volcanic activity, for 
there are at least 2000 craters upon them to-day. 
Winds and rains have acted upon these cones for many 
centuries, until now they are eroded into fantastic 
shapes, and are greatly reduced in altitude. The 
highest summits are now less than 4000 feet above the 
level of the sea. 

Some of the craters are as many as four or five miles in 
diameter. The rums are so low in some cases that the 
depressions are simply somewhat circular valleys af- 
fording excellent pasturage for cattle. You will be 
interested to know that there are thousands of wild 
cattle here that are hunted for their hides. The ani- 
mals are especially abundant on Albemarle Island. 

Although the rainfall is abundant, there is practically 
no vegetation within 500 feet of sea level. This is 
because the great flows of lava spread over the lower 
land, and it is to-day a wilderness of black rock. In 
time Nature will transform this rock into sofl, and vege- 
tation win clothe the land. Above this desolate region 
there is some vegetation, and stifl higher up there is 
timber. 



THE TURTLE ISLANDS 167 

A great drift of cold water moves northward along 
the western coast of South America. This current, 
which is known as the Humboldt Current, turns west- 
ward near the equator, and washes the southern shores 
of the Galapagos Islands. Of course its waters are 
much warmer than they are near the southern part 
of the continent, but they are still much colder than the 
ocean in equatorial latitudes. A little north of the 
equator there is an eastward drift of warm water. 
This washes the northern coast of the islands. There 
is therefore a difference of about twenty degrees Fahren- 
heit between the temperature of the water at the 
northern and the southern coasts of the islands. This 
leads to a great difference in ocean life. On the north- 
ern and the southern sides of Cape Cod, similar con- 
ditions exist. Find the cause in this case. 

Imagine great, awkward, slow-moving turtles crawl- 
ing over the black rocks by thousands. This was what 
the first European visitors saw. In the course of time 
some one discovered that from these strange turtles a 
valuable oil could be obtained. One of the very large 
turtles would yield five or six gallons of oil. This oil can 
be used as a substitute for lard, and is worth about 
seventy-five cents a gallon. 

Naturally the animals were killed in tremendous 
numbers. This was an easy matter, as they cannot 
move rapidly enough to escape. Their numbers have 



168 SOUTH AMERICA 

been so greatly reduced that they are in danger of ex- 
tinction^ and there are very few large turtles left. If 
you were to visit the Galapagos Islands you would see 
immense numbers of broken shells scattered about, in- 
dicating the extent to which the slaughtering of the 
turtles has been carried on. 

But the turtle industry is not the only one found 
here. Seals are numerous, and their skins are valuable. 
Codfish and lobsters are caught in large numbers. 
Another product, which was once quite important, is 
the orchilla weed or dyers' moss. Before the discovery 
of aniline dyes this moss was very valuable because of 
the dyes made from it. The islands produce salt in 
considerable quantities. 

Another point of interest regarding the Galapagos 
Islands is their position with reference to the Panama 
Canal. They occupy a somewhat similar position on 
the west, to that occupied by the West Indies on the 
east. Some day they may be of vast importance be- 
cause of this position. 



CHAPTER XVII 

COLOMBIA 

In the northwest extremity of South America^ and 
joined to North America by the narrow Isthmus of 
Panama, Hes a country of very irregular shape. This 
is the Repubhc of Colombia. It is made up of nine 
divisions called departments. There is water upon two 
sides of Colombia. It has about 1000 miles of Pacific 
coast line on the west. The coast line of the Caribbean 
Sea on the north is nearly as long. The Republics of 
Venezuela and Brazil lie to the east, and Ecuador 
borders it on the south. In size it approaches the great 
territory of Alaska, and its chief river, the Magdalena, 
stands in about the same relation to Colombia as does 
the mighty Yukon to Alaska. There are about as 
many people in Colombia as there are in greater New 
York. 

Like many other parts of South America, Colombia 
has a history reaching back to the early Spanish rule. 
The coast of the Caribbean Sea bordering on Colombia 
and Venezuela, from Cape Yucatan to the delta of the 
Orinoco River, was called the " Spanish Main.'' Many 

169 



170 SOUTH AMERICA 

years ago the name Tierra Firma was given the territory 
now comprised in Colombia^ Venezuela and the Guianas. 
The kingdom of New Granada lay to the south. At 
that time the kingdom of Tierra Firma was the most 
powerful of all the countries of South America. In the 
year 1831 Colombia became independent of Spain. In 
1903 Panama was separated from Colombia. On one 
of his final voyages^ Columbus discovered the shores of 
this country, and we thus have the name Colombia. 
The Goajira Peninsula projects into the Caribbean and 
ends in Point Gallinas. This is the most northern land 
on the continent. 

Extending from the northern to the southern part 
of Colombia, and coming close together near the south- 
ern boundary, are three mountain ranges. These 
ranges of the Andes are called the Western, Central 
and Eastern Cordillera. There is still another lower 
range near the Pacific Coast, and extending from the 
middle of the country north through Panama. The 
names occidental and oriental are sometimes given the 
Western and Eastern Cordilleras. 

These ranges are situated so far apart that there are 
extensive valleys and table-lands lying between. The 
western half of Colombia is an extensive plain broken 
by hills. This territory is watered by numerous 
rivers and smaller streams. In the southeast there 
is an extension of the central plain or llanos of South 



COLOMBIA 



171 




Fig. 67. — Tequendama Falls, Colombia. 



172 SOUTH AMEBIC A 

America. This is one of the great cattle-raising 
districts. 

These llanos or prairies extend as far as Brazil and 
Venezuela. Rich grasses cover these plains the entire 
year. There are no large forests here. Rain is abun- 
dant^ and the soil fertile. On the llanos and in the 
valleys throughout Colombia the soil is blacky and ex- 
tends to a considerable depth. With slight cultivation 
valuable crops could be produced. There is, however, 
no opportunity to ship these crops to market. 

On account of the many high mountain ranges, there 
are numerous table-lands and plateaus. The most ex- 
tensive and fertile of these table-lands lie on either side 
of the Magdalena River and reach to the shoulders of 
the mountain ranges. 

In the valleys of the rivers and upon the mountain 
slopes, are vast forest areas. There are in Colombia 
some of the most dense forests in South America. Here 
numerous cabinet and dye woods are found. Medicinal 
plants and herbs grow in profusion. 

Toward the northern portion of the country the 
mountain ranges become lower, and for many miles 
inland from the coast the country is flat or rolling. 
There are numerous lakes scattered throughout the 
republic. With high mountains, level table-lands and 
fertile valleys, Colombia has almost every variety of 
scenery, climate and soil to be found in the world. 



COLOMBIA 173 

The principal highway of the country is the Mag- 
dalena River. Railways are few^ and to reach Bogota, 
the capital and largest city, one must cross from Buena- 
ventura on the Pacific coast, or travel up the Mag- 
dalena. The river rises in the Andes under the equator, 
two miles above sea level. In its upper course it flows 
over great rocks and cliffs, and forms many rapid whirl- 
pools. Many times it changes its course, thus forming 
or washing away islands or leaving towns inland. It 
carries much silt and the waters are muddy. Let us 
take a trip by boat up this great river and visit the 
capital city. 

The steamboat on which we travel reminds us of the 
old type of steamboat used on the Mississippi. Our 
boat burns wood, and we find large piles along the river 
banks from which we replenish our stock of fuel. In- 
deed, there are many things about the Magdalena that 
remind us of the Mississippi. The waters are muddy. 
There are two main arms of the delta six miles apart. 
In the mouth of the river is the Island of Gomez. The 
western is the larger branch and is two miles wide. The 
other branch is half a mile in width. This delta and 
island are somewhat similar to the delta of the Amazon 
and Mara jo Island. 

The town of Salgor is just west of the delta. From 
Salgor to Barranquilla, a city of 40,000, we may travel 
by rail. This journey is only a few miles in length. 



174 SOUTH AMERICA 

Our steamboat then takes us 500 miles up the Mag- 
dalena to Honda. As we go north the valley narrows 
and the highlands come closer to the river. Here and 
there along the route the natives are seen pushing their 
long canoes upstream. These canoes or hungoes are 
covered with oval roofs of bamboo or thatch. They 
push their canoes by walking along the bank and using 
paddles or long poles. In coming downstream these 
canoes are pushed into the river and drift with the 
current. 

From the delta country to the Dique, a wide canal 
connecting the river with the Bay of Cartagena^ the 
land along the Magdalena is low and flat. This canal 
was opened by Philip II of Spain, and later became filled 
up. After many years it was again opened in 1881. 
The lowland on either side was once occupied by vast 
estates or plantations. In this country there was 
slavery as in our southern states. When slavery was 
abolished in Colombia these estates went into disuse. 
In time all of the delta land will be reclaimed. 

Near the delta are wooded swamps. Pelicans, 
craneS; flamingoes and numerous fishing birds abound. 
As our boat sails along we pass through a country par- 
tially covered by water. Mosquitoes are very trouble- 
some. These stvamps are caused by the overflow of the 
river. Only negroes live here. Their rude huts are 
usually built directly upon the bank of the river, and 



COLOMBIA 175 

at high water the houses may be flooded. These people 
prefer to hve in this fashion so as to see the boats pass up 
and down, and to fish in the river without walking a 
distance. They sometimes construct dikes in front of 
their homes by using trunks of fallen trees. 

All along the way fish of many kinds are found in 
abundance. Dried bacalls or salmon are the fish of 
commerce. Alligators, sunning themselves on islands 
or rocks, tumble into the water as the boat approaches. 
Even crocodiles are occasionally seen. These may 
measure thirty feet in length. The huge animals stretch 
out in the sun with closed eyes and open mouth. A 
small gnat which is very annoying to the crocodile 
gathers in great numbers on the creature's palate. A 
species of bird alights without fear upon the head of 
the crocodile and eats these gnats. Many reptiles of 
the tropics are to be seen in the water and on the land. 

Farther up the river the region is more elevated. 
Here the mango and native orange and citron grow in 
profusion. The banyan, the calabash, the plantain, 
the wild oleander and the nut-palm flourish. Birds 
of brilliant plumage are everywhere seen. In the 
dense forests are monkeys, jaguars and deer, and here 
the boa, a huge snake, is sometimes found. 

As our boat goes farther south we come to a region 
where in the mountains are many extinct volcanoes. 
The scenery is grand. In portions of the valley near 



176 SOUTH AMERICA 

the river^ the soil is fertile and the climate health- 
ful. There are few negroes here, but the native Indian 
of Colombia makes this region his home. These Indians 
are quite civilized. They are short and muscular and 
are copper-colored. The face is smooth. In manner 
they are gracious and polite. 

Had we gone down the western coast of Colombia to 
Buenaventura we should have traveled over a narrow 
gauge railway a distance of 70 miles to Cali, a town 
3000 feet above sea level. Call is situated over the 
Western Cordillera in the valley of the Cauca River. 
This is one of the most beautiful and fertile valleys in 
the republic. From Cali we should travel by mule 
through many dangerous passes over the Central Cordil- 
lera to the edge of the table-land upon which Bogota is 
situated. A coach would then take us to the city, a 
distance of perhaps 30 miles. This trip would require 
about two weeks. 

On leaving our boat at Honda after our river trip, 
we travel by mules up the mountain slopes. This is a 
journey of three days if the mountain paths are in good 
condition. 

Bogota is situated upon a fertile table-land over 
8,600 feet above sea level. In spite of its altitude, it 
has a delightful climate. Can you explain this ? It is 
a city of 125,000 population. Long ago it was called 
Santa Fe de Bogota. It was founded in the year 1536, 



COLOMBIA 



177 



and at the close of the sixteenth centuiy was the capital 
of New Granada. We are glad to reach Bogota and to 
seek rest after our long journey. 

We are surprised to find so large and flourishing a 
city as Bogota at so great a distance from the large 
cities with which we are familiar. The houses are 




Fig. 68. — Street in Bogota. 



usually not more than two stories in height, owing to 
the frequency of earthquake shocks. The streets of 
the city are narrow, with few electric railways. The 
squares and plazas are much frequented. Telephones 
are in general use, and a telegraph line connects Bogota 
with the outside world. Is it not strange that in far- 
off Bogota the daily papers contain the same telegraphic 



,178 SOUTH AMERICA 

news from Europe and Asia that comes to us ? There 
are theaters^ Hbraries^ schools and colleges. 

The city is built in terraces as the ground rises 
abruptly to the eastward. In the middle of each east- 
and-west street is a stream of water which runs rapidly 
down the slope. These streams flow into the San Fran- 
cisco River. The streets are paved with cobblestones. 
The sidewalks are of smooth stone or brick, and hardly 
wide enough to permit two persons to pass each other. 
Tramways connect Bogota with surrounding towns. 
Gas and electricity are in common use. The houses, 
or walls surrounding them, are built close to the street, 
passageways leading into the living rooms. In the in- 
terior is a "patio or hollow scjuare. The sleeping rooms 
are on the second story or balcony, and open on to the 
patio. 

Bolivar plaza in the center of the city is named in 
honor of General Simon Bolivar, the Liberator. The 
capital building, the metropolitan cathedral and the 
palace of the Spanish viceroys, erected centuries ago, 
surround the plaza. The Plaza de los Martiros or 
Plaza of the Martyrs, is another historic spot. The city 
is extremely quiet and orderly. 

The plateau upon which Bogota is built is some 70 
miles long and 30 broad. On this fertile plateau lakes 
and streams abound. The river Funza drains the 
rivers of this plateau into the Magdalena. The falls of 



COLOMBIA 



1T9 




180 SOUTH AMEBIC A 

Tequendama are in the Funza. The river breaks 
through a gorge where the water drops 600 feet. Coal 
is found in immense quantities near Bogota, and iron 
ore exists. The Irish potato is the chief crop. Corn, 
and particularly wheat and rye, are extensively culti- 
vated. Small vegetables such as peas and beans, celery, 
lettuce, parsnips and all the common vegetables of our 
country may be had fresh the year round. 

The chief industry on the farms or haciendas is cattle 
raising. Hides and tallow are shipped. There are 
many sheep. At Zipaquira, about 30 miles north of 
Bogota, are located some of the most famous salt mines 
in the world. Here a solid mass of rock salt extends 
into the earth to a great depth. The rock in which it is 
found is crushed, and the pure salt is obtained after 
boiling in huge vats. The crystallized salt is made into 
cylinders of about 25 pounds each, and carried on the 
backs of mules to the river where it is shipped. 

Colombia has several interesting cities. Cartagena 
is on the coast some distance south of the mouth of the 
Magdalena. It is an old city, and in the seventeenth 
century was a great commercial and naval center. 
When the Dique Canal was abandoned Cartagena lost 
much of its glory. In the time of Philip II the town 
was surrounded by a wall 30 feet high and so thick that 
it remains almost unchanged to-day. Forts were built 
at intervals on the walls, and underground passages led 



COLOMBIA 



181 




Courtesy of Rajael del casuhu oc <,i/., i' 

Y^Q, 70. — A modern business building in Cartagena. 



182 SOUTH AMERICA 

to these. There is a fine harbor. The red tiles of the 
cathedral roofs have been shining in the sun for more 
than three centuries. The city has been called ^^The 
Cradle of Liberty on the South American Continent.'' 
Trade is now reviving in Cartagena. The railroad 
connecting Barranquilla and Salgor takes much of the 
trade from Cartagena. 

Buenaventura is on the Pacific coast about midway 
from north to south. It is connected by rail with San 
Jose de Cauca some 25 miles distant^ and Cali^ 50 miles 
inland from Cauca. Popayan is on the Cauca River 
far toward the southern part of the country. Medellin 
is another interior city. It is the center of the principal 
mining district. River and railway connect it with the 
outside world. Medellin lies between the Western and 
Central Cordillera. Bucaramanga is east of the Mag- 
dalena on the table-land. Socorro lies south of Bucara- 
manga. None of these cities has more than 50,000 
population. 

Barranquilla is now a most important city. It is 
connected by rail with Sabanilla and Puerto Colombia 
on the coast, and much of the sea trade goes to these 
places. The streets are sandy, and the houses poorly 
constructed. The better dwellings have tile roofs and 
are built of wood or brick. The merchants dress in 
white and wear high, conical straw hats. Santa Marta, 
on the coast east of where the Magdalena enters the 



COLOMBIA 183 

Caribbean, was once a flourishing town. Its trade 
has now gone largely to Barranquilla and Salgor, al- 
though it still exports large quantities of bananas. The 
harbor of Santa Marta is surrounded by snow-capped 
mountains. The city is over 400 years old, and the 
cathedral dates from the time of Columbus. There 
are few white people. The streets are generally nar- 
row, crooked and unimproved. Burros are used in 
transportation. 

Colombia furnishes nearly all of the emeralds used in 
the world. The emerald mines are more valuable than 
the diamond mines. The emerald is a variety of beryl. 
The most valuable single emerald of modern times was 
obtained in these mines and weighs more than eight 
ounces. Gold and silver are mined, and Colombia 
produces more platinum than any other country in the 
world save Russia. Coal and iron are found in abun- 
dance. Indeed, the coal fields of Colombia may some 
day supply the markets of. our own country. These 
coal and iron mines are as yet undeveloped. Petroleum 
also is found in this region. 

In the warm, low valleys sugar cane, coffee, cocoa 
and quinine are abundant. Tobacco, bananas and 
cotton are grown in the tropical regions. On the 
uplands coffee, apples, peaches, potatoes, wheat, rye, 
barley and oats are harvested. On the table-lands 
stock is raised, and the prairies are covered with cattle,j 



184 SOUTH AMERICA 

sheep and horses. Colombia has more timber than any 
other country of its size in South America. There are 
many varieties of cabinet and dye woods^ including 
mahogany and Spanish cedar. Rubber and vegetable 
ivory or ivory nuts^ from which the so-called bone 
buttons are made, are obtained in abundance. There 
are cocoa^ indigo^ and sarsaparilla and other products 
of the forest. 

Of the exportS; bananas are an important item. 
From Santa Marta alone large quantities of bananas 
are exported to the United States and to Europe. 
Cocoa^ coffeC; ivory nutS; vegetable-dyes, minerals, 
woods and hides are exported. Most of the export 
work is done by small traders who buy from the interior 
and ship to the coast. Colombia trades chiefly with 
the United States, Great Britain and Germany. The 
United States buys from Colombia twice as much as she 
sells to that country. 

The imports consist largely of manufactured articles, 
such as foodstuffs, flour, canned goods, cotton goods, 
ready-made clothing, shoes, hardware, cutlery, glass, 
petroleum, stationery, brass, jewelry, and brandy. To 
all interior cities these commodities have to be shipped 
and re-shipped and packed on the backs of mules. The 
lack of transportation facilities tends to keep prices 
high. As yet there are few railroads. There are mule 
trains in the mountains and some 700 small vessels on 



COLOMBIA 185 

the Magdalena and other rivers, and the natives, who 
carry bundles on their heads, do most of the transporting 
of merchandise. Short railroads connect Bogota with 
Tocatativa, Zipaquira and Soacha, surrounding towns. 
Thus the mines have direct connection with the Mag- 
dalena and with the great outside world. 

The natives are uniformly courteous. They live on 
fish, fowls and fruits including pineapples, yams, 
mandioc and bananas. Salted fish, principally salmon, 
is carried to interior points. Many of the rivers are 
spanned by rope bridges. Travelers are frequently 
carried over the mountains in chairs. 



DEC 18 1913 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



A-con-ca'gua (gwa), 8, 120. 
Am'a-zon, 49. 
An'des (dez), 8. 
An-ti-sa'na (te), 151. 
An-to-fa-gas'ta, 120. 
A-re-qui'pa (ra-ke), 144. 
Ar'gen-tine Republic, 67. 
Asuncion (a-soon-se-on'), 95. 
A-ta-ca'ma, 113. 

Bahia (ba-ee'a), 46. 
Barquisime'to (ke-se), 26. 
Barranquilla (bar-ran-keel'ya), 

173. 
Bio-Bio (bee'o-bee'o), 120. 
Bo-go-ta', 176. 
Bo-liv'i-a, 128 

history of, 132. 
mineral wealth of, 130. 
Bra-zil', 34. 

area of, 35. 
climate of, 36. 
history of, 47. 
mineral wealth of, 38. 
Bucaramanga (boo-ka-ra-mang'- 

ga), 182. 
Buenaventura (bwa-na-ven-too'- 

ra), 176. 
Buenos Aires (bwa'nus a'riz), 77. 

Caazapa (ka-a-sa-pa'), 99. 
Cali (ka-leeO, 176. 
Callao (kal-ya'o), 140. 



Cape Horn, 124. 

Ca-ra'cas, 22. 

Cartegena (kar-ta-jee'na), 180. 

Cassiquiare (kas-se-ke-a'ra) , 18. 

Cauca (kow'ka), 176. 

Cay am be (ki-am-ba'), 151. 

Chile (chil'lee), 111. 

Chim-bo-ra'zo, 9. 

Ciudad Bolivar (se-oo-dad' bo-lee'- 

var), 26. 
Cocoa (ko'ko), 158. 
Coffee, 59. 
Co-lom'bi-a, 169. 
Corcovado (kor-ko-va'do) , 44. 
Corentyne (ko-ren-tin'), 32. 
Corrientes (kor-re-en'tes), 72. 
Co-to-pax'i, 151. 
Cumana (koo-ma-na'), 3. 
Cuzco (coos'-co), 139. 

Dem-er-a'ra, 31. 

Ecuador (ek'wa-dor), 151. 
Esmeraldas (es-ma-ral'da), 156. 
Essiquibo (es-se-ke'bo), 30. 
Estancias (es-tan^ce-a), 67. 

Funza (foon'sa), 178. 

Ga-lap'a-gos Islands, 165. 
Gallinas (gal-yee'nas), 170. 
Gendarmes (zhan-darras'), 83. 
Georgetown, 31. 



187 



188 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Goajira (go-a-hee'ra), 170. 
Guayaquil (gwi-a-keP), 152. 
Guayara Falls, 89. 
Guayas (gwT'as), 151. 
Guiana, British (ge-a'na), 30. 

Dutch, 32. 

French, 33. 

Ha-ci-en'da, 180. 
Huaqui, 129. 

Illinizi (e-le-nee'-sa), 151. 

Ipoa, 90. 

Ipocaroi, 90. 

Iquitos (e-kee'toce),.52. 

Jejun, 90. 

Juan Fernandez (hoo-an' fer-nan- 
deth), 125. 

Kaietur Falls (ki-eh-toor'), 30. 

La Guai-ra (la gwi'ra), 22. 
La Paz' (path), 136. 
La Pla'ta, 72, 109. 
Li 'ma (le), 142. 
Lla'ma, 147. 
Lla'nos, 170. 

Mag-da-le'na River, 173. 
Ma-na'os, 52. 
Ma-ra-cal'bo, city of, 26. 
lake of, 18. 
Maroni (ma-ro'nee), 32. 
Ma'te, 91. 

Medellin (ma-del-yeen'), 182. 
Mollendo (mol-yen'do), 142. 
Mon-te-vid'e-5, 105. 

Ni'trate of soda, 113. 

0-ri-no'co, 17. 

Oruro Railroad (o-roo'ro), 129. 



Pam'pas, 68. 
Pan-a-ma' Canal, 5. 

Isthmus of, 5. 
Pa-ra', 58. 

Pa'ra^guay (gwi), 88. 
Pa'ra-guay River (gwi), 89. 
Paramaribo (par-a-mar'e-bo), 32. 
Pa-ra-na', 72. 
Pat-a-go'ni-a (ne), 72. 
Paysandu (pi-san-doo'), 108. 
Per-nam-bu'co (boo), 47. 
Pe-ru' (roo), 138. 
Pichincha (pe-chin'cha), 152. 
Pilcomayo (pil-ko-mi'o), 90. 
Pitch, 2. 
Pon'chos, 68. 

Popayan (po-pa-yan'), 182. 
Porto Alegre (por-too a-la'gra), 39. 
Po-to'ro, 30. 
Po-to-si' (se), 130. 
Puerto Cabello (pwer'to ka-bel'yo), 

24. 
Punta Arenas (poon'ta a-ra'nas), 

120. 

Que-bra'cho, 94. 
Quito (ke'to), 152. 

Rio de Janeiro (re'o da zha-na'e-ro) , 

39, 66. 
Rio Grande do Sul (re'o gran'da 

d5sool), 38. 
Rub'ber, 53. 

Sabanilla (sa-ba-neel'ya), 182. 
Sal-a-der'os, 103. 
Sal-gar', 173. 
San Es-tan-is-la'o, 99. 
San-ta Mar'ta, 182. 
San-ti-a'go (te), 116. 
San'tos, 39. 
Si-es'ta (se), 99. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



189 



Socorro (so-kor'ro), 182, 
South America, area of, 6. 

climate of, 9. 

coast of, 6. 

commerce of, 12. 

mineral wealth of, 
11. 

position of, 5. 
Ste've-dores, 81. 
Strait of Magellan, 124. 
Surinam (soo-ri-nam'), 32. 



Te-quen-da'ma, 171, 180. 
Tierra del Euego (te-er'ra 

fwa'go), 124. 
Ti-ti-ca'ca, 131. 



del 



To-ca-ta-ti'va, 185. 
Trinidad (tre-ne-dad'), 3. 
Tucacas (too-ka'kas), 26. 
Tucuman (too-koo-man'), 74. 

Uruguay (oo-roo-gwi'), 101. 
Us-pal-la'ta, 118. 

Valdivia (val-dee've-a), 116. 
Val-pa-rai's6, 117. 
Ven-e-zue'la, 14. 
Villa Concepcion, 99. 
Villa Encarnacion (en-kar-na- 
se-on'), 99. 

Zipaquira (se-pa-kee'ra), 180. 



DEC 18 mi3 



'T^HE following pages contain advertisements of a 
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The Continents and Their People 

By JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN and ARTHUR 
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